1. Performance = Ability x Motivation

2. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Self-Actualization
Self-Esteem Needs
Social Needs
Safety Needs
Basic needs
Physiological Needs

3. Equity Theory
Social comparison process where motivation is due to perceptions of inequity
Person
(forms a ratio of inputs to outcomes and compares this ratio to a comparison other)
Comparison Other
(can be a co-worker, yourself in the past, an ideal)
Inputs (e.g., experience, effort, skill, education)
Outcomes (e.g., $, benefits, flexibility, autonomy, responsibility, promotion)

4. Equity Theory Example
Overpayment (receiving greater outcomes to inputs compared to another)
Underpayment (receiving less outcomes to inputs compared to another)
Person: 50/75
Other: 50/50
Person: 50/50
Other: 50/75
Result:
Hourly work (salaried position) :
Greater input (e.g., effort) to reduce the perceive inequity regarding the quantity and quality of goods
Piece rate: Greater input to produce better quality goods
Result:
Hourly work (salaried position):
Less input (e.g., effort) to produce less number and poorer quality of goods
Piece rate: Greater input to produce more quantity of goods but with less quality

5. Inequity Options Behavioral Options to reduce perceived inequity:
Change outcomes (e.g., ask for a raise)
Get other to change their inputs to outcomes (e.g., slow down their rate of production
3) Find new work (e.g., quit the job, get a job transfer)
Cognitive Options to reduce perceived inequity:
1) Distort one’s own inputs or outcomes (e.g., “I’m not really working that hard,” “I have a lot of free time”)
Distort the inputs or outcomes of others (e.g., he/she gets more money than me but they have to live in Buffalo)
3) Change the comparison other

6. Expectancy Theory
Valences
(attractiveness of outcomes rated on a scale from -10 to A valence is given to each job outcome)
Instrumentality
(the perceived relationship between performance and attained outcomes from 0 to One instrumentality for each valence)
Expectancy
(perceived relationship between effort and performance; 0 to There is only one expectancy value)
Rewards (Outcomes)
Pay
Work Conditions
Benefits
Autonomy 9 6 7 3
.75
.50
.30
.10
Motivation force = (V x I) + (V x I) + (V x I) + (V x I) x E

7. Schedules of Reinforcement
Reinforcement Theory
Stimulus Response Reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Interval (FI) e.g., reinforcement by the hour or week
Fixed Ratio (FR) e.g., reinforce based on piece rate on the number of goods produced, behaviors performed
Variable Interval (VI) e.g., reinforcement based on random passage of time
Variable Ratio (VR) e.g., random (variable) reinforcement based on the number of goods produced, behaviors performed (such as gambling)

8. Goal Setting Goal Awareness Goal Acceptability
It is best for goals to be:
Challenging (difficult)
Specific
Knowledge of behaviors
needed to achieve goals
Affects self-efficacy, control, and perceptions of mastery; allows for the regulation of behavior
Self Regulation Theory
Specific behaviors needed
Progress to goal attainment
Feedback

9. Reasons Why Goals Setting Works (Mechanisms)
Directs actions of employees
Aids in the development of strategies
Energizes actions/behaviors
Promotes persistence
Possible Limitations:
Competition
Production of undesirable behaviors (e.g., unethical, not reporting
goal-damaging behaviors)
Focus on certain performance criteria (e.g., quantity vs. quality)
Fulfilling valued goals leads to self-satisfaction and creates incentives to intensify efforts

10. ~ Some Goal Setting Issues ~
Effectiveness of assigned versus participative goal setting
a) Role of authority figure
b) Creation of confidence in employees (high self-efficacy)
c) Creates challenge
d) Helps to define standards for employees
Role of goal acceptability and difficult goals (low expectancy goals; one’s where the
probability for success is low)
Satisfaction (easy goals) versus motivation (difficult goals)
a) Use of moderately difficult goals
b) Different points used for easy and difficult goals
c) Make goals incrementally more difficult (accomplishing earlier, easier
goals can lead to satisfaction)
 Interaction of goal setting and feedback (One without the other does not work)

11. Self-Efficacy: Beliefs about one’s capabilities to produce a desired level of performance and to control events
“Whether you think you can or you can’t, you’re usually right.” --- Henry Ford
“If I have the belief that I can do it, I shall surely acquire the capacity to so it even if I may not have it at the beginning.” --- Mahatma Gandhi
“A man who doubts himself is like a man who would enlist in the ranks of his enemies and bear arms against himself. He makes his failure certain by himself being the first person to be convinced of it.” --- Alexandre Dumas
“Self confidence is the first requisite to great undertakings.” --- Samuel Johnson

12. Sample Self-Efficacy Items
I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough
I someone opposes me, I can find means and ways to get what I want.
It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals.
I am confident that I could deal efficiently with unexpected events.
Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen situations.
I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary effort.
I can remain calm when facing difficulties because I can rely on my coping abilities.
If I am confronted with a problem, I can usually find several solutions.
If I am in trouble, I can usually think of something to do.
No matter what comes my way, I’m usually able to handle it.

13. Perceived self-efficacy
Feelings
Bulk of motivation is due to our thoughts about what we can do, and the anticipation of the likely outcomes of our behaviors
Perceived self-efficacy
Thoughts
Motivation
Behavior
Failure: Attributions, resilience, effort, and future goal levels

14. Job Characteristics Model
Critical Psychological States
Core Job Dimensions
Personal & Work Outcomes
Combine Tasks
Put tasks into natural work units
Customer contact
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
Meaningfulness of work
High intrinsic work motivation
High quality of work performance
High satisfaction with work
Low absenteeism and turnover
Responsibility for work outcomes
Vertically load jobs
Autonomy
Knowledge of work results
Feedback
Open feedback channels
Employee Growth Need Strength
Motivation Potential Score = (Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance) /3 x Autonomy x Feedback

15. Sample Questions From The Job Diagnostic Survey
How much autonomy is there in your job? That is, to what extent does your job permit you
to decide on your own how to go about doing the work?
Very little; the job gives me almost no personal “say” about how and when the work is done
Moderate autonomy; many things are standardized and not under my control, but I can make some decisions about the work
Very much; the job gives me almost complete responsibility for deciding how and when the work is done
How significant or important is your job? That is, are the results of your work likely to
significantly affect the lives or well-being of other people?
Not very significant; the outcomes of my work are not likely to have important effects on other people
Moderately significant
Highly significant; the outcomes of my work can affect other people in very important ways
To what extent do managers and co-workers tell you how well you are doing on your job?
Very little; people almost never let me know how well I am doing
Moderately; sometimes people may give me “feedback,” other times they may not
Very much; managers or co-workers provide me with almost constant “feedback” about how well I’m doing

16. Developing Self-Determination
“Intrinsically motivated behavior is by definition self-determined. It is done freely for the inherent satisfaction associated with certain activities and with undertaking optimal challenge”
(Deci & Ryan, 1987)

17. Motivation: SDT What/where are people’s motivational incentives?
Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
The gains we make from the activity motivate us (e.g., money, power, prestige, endorsements)
The activity itself is rewarding; you are interested, and enjoy doing it
Intrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity for its own sake
Extrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence (e.g. a reward)

18. A Look at Rewards for Motivation
Good jump ropers during recess were chosen and put in three conditions
Following the intervention, which group will jump rope during recess more?
Least
Most
Expected reward:
Students were told if they did a good job, they would get a “good jumper” badge. All got a badge.
Unexpected reward:
Students were awarded a “good jumper” badge after doing a good job on the task. All got a badge.
Control / No reward:
Students jumped rope, but were not told of a reward, and were not given one.
Unexpected and control/no reward jumped rope the most, with no statistical difference.
Expected reward jumped rope significantly less.
Reward undermined intrinsic value of the activity. Now don’t see a reason to jump rope unless they are “getting something out of it.”
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET): 2 aspects of rewards:
Controlling – rewards used as an instrument to control behavior
Informational – rewards provide information about competence

19. Assumption: Overall Motivation = Internal + External Rewards
Intrinsic Motivation
Assumption: Overall Motivation = Internal + External Rewards
Individuals who
intrinsically
enjoy their work
Can lead to lowered intrinsic motivation
Increase extrinsic (external) rewards (e.g., pay)
Intrinsic
Motivation
Extrinsic (external) factors now partially account for why individuals are motivated to perform a given task
External rewards limit people’s sense of self-determination
Extrinsic Motivation
Why?
Tangible extrinsic rewards reliably undermine intrinsic motivation under most circumstances. The most detrimental reward contingency involves giving rewards as a direct function of people's performance. This is the one most often used in life, seems to be the one that is most detrimental to the motivation, performance, and well-being.

20. Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (Ryan, 1982)
Only scale that measures intrinsic motivation per se