1. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM1 SOURCES OF KNOWLDGE

2. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM2 Where do we get information we want? (Source of knowledge) 1. Experience 2. Authority 3. Deductive reasoning 4. Inductive reasoning 1.Experiences, what does it mean? But, what’s the problem? Overgeneralization Selected observation. Premature closure Halo Effect

3. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM3 Authority/expert opinion People sometimes seek opinion form someone who has the experience or knowledge. We see physician for health problems, we see stockbrokers for investment etc. Who are the authorities? Parents, teachers, expert, books Quick, simple and cheap way to learn something Is the answer or solution valid and reliable? It depends on the credentials of the experts. They give opinions based on what the person knows

4. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM4 Tradition That is the authority of the past Misalnya: kenapa buat begini? Orang dah biasa buat begini, sakitnya baik

5. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM5 Common sense Kalau hukuman tak berat, penagih makin ramai

6. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM6 Media myth Apa yang digambarkan oleh media semuanya betul

7. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM7 Deductive reasoning (Proses Logik) Reaching conclusion through logic From general to specific A system of organizing known facts in order to reach a conclusion through a logic process Bermula dengan premis [supporting evidence] (major dan minor) dan berakhir dengan rumusan Untuk membolehkan rumusan itu benar, maka premis mestilah benar.

8. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM8 Contoh deductive reasoning ORANG MALAYSIA ADALAH ORANG ASIA. (major premise) AHMAD ADALAH ORANG MALAYSIA. (minor premise) OLEH ITU AHMAD ADALAH ORANG ASIA. (Conclusion ) All human beings are mortal Sally is a human being Therefore, Sally is mortal every mammal has lungs All rabbits are mammals Therefore, every rabbit has a lung

9. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM9 ** both major and minor premise must be true to come to a true conclusion** ** if either one is fall the conclusion may not be true** As long as the first two statements are true, the third statement must be true.

10. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM10 Inductive reasoning-empirism Conclusion is reached by observing examples and generalizing from example to the whole class In deductive, premise must be known and true before a true conclusion can be reached. But, how one is to know if the premises are true?

11. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM11 Untuk lebih pasti lagi mengenai ketepatan rumusan, kita mesti cerap semua contoh. Dan ini dikenali PERFECT INDUCTION Tetapi dalam keadaan sebenar, pencerapan ke atas semua unit adalah tidak praktikal, maka kita akan buat imperfect induction berdasarkan pencerapan yang tidak lengkap.

12. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM12 Kita hanya mampu buat perfect induction bagi kumpulan kecil sahaja. Sesuatu rumusan yang kita buat untuk suatu kumpulan kecil tidak semestinya benar untuk kumpulan lain. Oleh itu kita biasanya buat imperfect induction di mana kita cerap sample kemudian kita infer kepada keseluruhan kumpulan.

13. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM13 Example of inductive reasoning Every rabbit that has ever been observed has lung Therefore, every rabbits has lungs

14. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM14 KAEDAH SAINTIFIK- empirical approach Ialah kombinasi deduktif dan induktif Sebabnya : pengumpulan data secara induction alone (isolated knowledge) tak banyak memberi sumbangan kepada kemajuan pengetahuan dan banyak masalah tidak dapat diselesaikan secara induction semata-mata

15. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM15 A process in which investigators move inductively from their observation to hypothesis and then deductively from hypothesis to the logical implication of the hypothesis. The use of hypothesis is a principal difference between scientific approach and inductive reasoning. In inductive- one makes observations first. Scientific-hypothesis than make observation

16. Scientific Method “ Science is a way of thinking that involves continuous and systematic interplay of rationale thought and empirical observation The 6 Basic Components of Science Understanding a topic and prior research on that topic. Develop a research question or theory. Developing procedures to answer the question or test the theory. Planning for, and then making appropriate empirical observations. Rationally interpreting the empirical observations. Publishing/disseminating findings and interpretations. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM16

17. The Empirical Approach The “WHY”, “WHOM”, “HOW”, and “WHEN” of research! WHY: establishes the need for the study, and generates a series of expected results, or hypotheses. WHOM: what population, and whether the population or a sample HOW: selection of variables to observe, and how to statistically analyze them WHEN: establishes the need for the study Acquired data may be numbers or narrative, depending on the type of Research Quantitative Qualitative EDU5900 AB. RAHIM17

18. The 4 Basic Assumptions of Science 1. A true, physical universe exists. 2. The universe is primarily an orderly system. 3. The principles of this orderly universe can be discovered, particularly through scientific research. 4. Our knowledge of the universe is always incomplete. a) new knowledge can, and should, alter current ideas and theories. Therefore, `b) all knowledge and theories are tentative. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM18

19. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM19 5 steps of a typical scientific inquiry 1.Identify the problem-disturbance in schools 2.Define the problem – make it clear what exactly the problem is 3.Formulate hypothesis- will …this is the possibility 4.Project consequences-what if? what would happen if we… 5.Test hypothesis Rumusan

20. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM20 Proses of mainting motosikal. Goes over the bump: misfire, go again misfire again, several times. Go over smooth stretch- nothing happen, go over bump- misfire again, then we can conlcude that misfiring was caused by bump. This is inductive Iaitu kita mula dengan pemerhatian baru kita buat keputusan. Katakan kita tak boleh start engine kereta. Kita tahu to start a car you need power which is powered by the battery. Dengan itu jika batery mati, maka kereta tak boleh dihidupkan. Dan ini adalah deduction. Start with general knowledge and predict specific observation.

21. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM21 Kekangan kaedah saintifik dalam sosial sains Complexity subject matter with human subject. Variables Difficulty in making generalization Kesukaran pencerapan/pemerhatian Subjective interpretation Kesukaran mengulangi kajian

22. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM22 Limitation of scientific approach Complexity of subject matter Human beings (various charcteristics) Difficulty in ObservationLess objective. Own values and attitudes may have some influence Difficult in replicationLocation, researcher, subjects experience and values

23. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM23 Interaction of observers and subjects May think that X causes Y. It may be their present that cause Y. Hawthorne experiment Control problemsLots of variable may influence the findings. Rigid control in impossible. Work under condition that is less precise, has to deal with many variables at one time Measurement problemsDeals with validity and reliability of measurement

24. EDU5900 AB. RAHIM24 Designs and methodological problems Limitations of findings Impose of valuesSubjective interpretation

25. Attitudes of scientists Doubters who maintain a highly skeptical attitude toward the data of science Findings are tentative. Need verification. Need replication Objective and impartialNo personal bias. May discard the theory if enough evidence to do so Deals with facts not valuesDo not make decision about what is good or bad. They provide data concerning the realtionship among events but you must go a step further to make decision Not satisfied with isolated facts but seek to integrate and systematize their findings Put things in an orderly system. Bring together the findings into a meaningdful pattern EDU5900 AB. RAHIM25

26. Role of Theory In Research Theories explain relationships between discrete observations. Not all research tests or develops theories Most research relies on theories to develop hypotheses. Theories can be: Deductive Inductive. Theory leads to developmentTheory formulated from Hypothesisdiscrete observation EDU5900 AB. RAHIM26

27. What is a theory? A set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definition, and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena. Theory knit together the results of observations, enabling scientist to make general statements about variables and the relationships among variables EDU5900 AB. RAHIM27

28. Purposes of theories – Explain why…… – Predict what will… – Suggest control… EDU5900 AB. RAHIM28