1. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Theories of Learning : sequential review of the main theories Paul Kawachi FRSA Open University of China kawachi @ open - ed. net

2. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Theories of Learning : sequential review of the main theories Paul Kawachi FRSA Open University of China kawachi @ open - ed. net http : // www. open - ed. net / library / theories. ppt

3. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net 1979 ~ 2012 : - behaviourism - cognitivism - cognitive constructivism - social constructivism - radical constructivism - constructionism - social constructionism

4. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Burrhus Fredric S KINNER 1904 ~ 1990 Theory of Behaviorism Behavior is determined by its consequences ; through reinforcement or punishment that make it more or less likely to re-occur.

5. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Jerome S. B RUNER 1904 ~ 1990 Theory of Radical Behaviorism Development is partially natural and partially through the help of scaffolding. Reality is made, not found.

6. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net behaviourism : Teacher-centred Teacher gives stimulus Student response is assessed Teacher adapts stimulus, and re-tests There are two types ; - - intrinsic - extrinsic

7. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net cognitivism : Teacher-sequenced inputs, Response process (not product) is assessed Connections between parts – rather than whole Teacher asks students to identify similarities or differences

8. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Jean P IAGET 1896 ~ 1980 Theory of Cognitive Constructivism There are four stages of cognitive development ; sensori-motor, pre-operational, concrete operational, then formal operational and maybe in later adulthood a fifth stage of problem finding / framing.

9. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net cognitive constructivism : Students are pre-tested to be put into streams Teacher says the connections to be made between new information input and past prior knowledge Open-ended questions to large classes or multiple-choice to individuals

10. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Lev S. V YGOTSKY 1896 ~ 1934 Theory of Social Constructivism There is a Zone of Proximal Development in which a person can achieve more when in the presence of higher achievers. Learning cannot be separated from the social context.

11. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net social constructivism : Pre-task awareness-raising, check there is adequate knowledge or teacher as moderator – so then cooperative Groups discuss concepts, ideas, not facts Parts must be understood only in terms of the whole

12. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Reuven F EUERSTEIN 1921 ~ Theory of Mediated Learning Dynamic assessment of what student can learn, rather than what she has learnt, with theory of helping the student to learn-how-to-learn, and developed the concepts of metacognition. His theory bridges Piaget’s individual direct learning with Vygotsky’s social ZPD assisted learning.

13. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Ernst von G LASERSFELD 1917 ~ 2010 Theory of Radical Constructivism The mind learns internally by accommodating new knowledge and re-organising the knowledge and experience that it has already got. Knowledge is built up by the individual reflecting on old knowledge and experience to improve its own structure which constitutes understanding.

14. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Seymour P APERT 1928 ~ Theory of Constructionism “ Some of the most crucial steps in mental growth are based not simply on acquiring new skills, but on acquiring new administrative ways to use what one already knows.”

15. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Kenneth J. G ERGEN 1935 ~ Theory of Social Constructionism Meaning is conveyed through interactions among group members. Active participation through adequate interaction is sufficient for learning.

16. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net radical constructivism : Student-centred Each builds up own unique map of the world Student’s mind changes to fit with experience The outside world imposes constraints but mind acts within these constraints Assess by problem-solving

17. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net constructionism : Learning alone independently Knowledge is in the ethereal interactions not constructivist in the world and not cognitivist in the individual mind Learning occurs through interacting with own imaginative projectionS

18. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net social constructionism : Student learns through reflecting on own interactions with others not from own experience, and not from other ideas Diversity helps by enriching interactivity Context-based ( not teacher- not student-based )

19. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net low … prior knowledge … high low … task complexity … high - - - b e h a v i o u r i s m - - - - - - - - - c o g n i t i v i s m - - - - - - c o n s t r u c t i v i s m - - - - - - c o n s t r u c t i on i s m

20. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net An online community of students studying together is often recommended. Why ? First, let’s talk about the goals of education and then we can see the role for social interactions online

21. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net over all published reports, we can find there are 5 Domains of Learning : these 5 Domains or areas are : - Cognitive knowledge and skills - Affective interest and love - Metacognitive satisfaction - Environment social aspects - Management coping with massive info

22. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net following from Bloom’s Taxonomy, there are now 5 goals of education covering each of the 5 Domains : - Cognitive - Affective - Metacognitive - Environment - Management let’s look at each of these, in turn...

23. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net - Cognitive knowledge and skills this teaching and learning objective involves increasing the student’s competence and proficiency

24. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net - Affective interest and love this teaching and learning objective involves initiating and developing the motivations to learn

25. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net - Metacognitive satisfaction this teaching and learning objective involves reflecting and self-awareness of achievements

26. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net - Environmental social aspects this teaching and learning objective involves building awareness, deploying a responsive team-spirit and fostering a learning community

27. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net - Management coping with massive info this teaching and learning objective involves the massive amounts of data now available ; determining the utility, the validities and the reliabilities of information, mastering necessary literacies including search, designing own learning, and designing research

28. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net from these, you can see why some teachers have looked at student satisfaction, or at building an online social community - Cognitive knowledge and skills - Affective interest and love - Metacognitive satisfaction - Environment social aspects - Management coping with massive info

29. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net from these, you can see why some teachers have looked at student satisfaction, or at building an online social community however, we should not think that short-term social interactions and satisfaction can replace the need to acquire knowledge and critical thinking skills for lifelong learning

30. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net now let’s look at Learning Models : then we can see how a framework or scaffold can be used in practice to reason which kinds interactions - cooperative or collaborative - are needed, and timing for each kind

31. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Transactional Distance Model : Kawachi 2003 this Model recognizes that learning starts from what someone already knows through cooperative sharing, and proceeds through collaborative reflection about new not-yet-learnt information

32. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net decreasing Transactional Distance 1 S- D- 2 S+ D- 3 S+ D+ 4 S- D+ cooperative sharing old collaborative creative collaborative disjunctive cooperative experiential

33. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Transactional Distance Model : Kawachi 2003 1 elicit needs, sharing, brainstorming 2 rationalizing, theorizing, justifying 3 consider all possible alternatives, disjunctive thinking 4 test out new way, experiential, publish

34. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net here we use the letters S and D to refer to : S Structure : the educative structure imposed by the teacher, textbook or institution D Dialogue : the educative guiding conversation ( not idle or social chat )

35. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net decreasing Transactional Distance 1 S- D- 2 S+ D- 3 S+ D+ 4 S- D+ cooperative sharing old collaborative creative collaborative disjunctive cooperative experiential

36. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Stage 1 cooperative Stage 2 collaborative Stage 4 cooperative Stage 3 collaborative

37. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Stage 1 is characterized by cooperative sharing of prior old knowledge and prior experience, eliciting views, brainstorming and divergent thinking to gather various different frames of context

38. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Stage 2 is characterised by collaborative creation and discovery of new theory rationalizing and underlying prior knowledge, developing metaphors, horizontal and lateral thinking

39. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Stage 3 is characterised by collaborative testing out of hypotheses to co-discover some new potential knowledge, problem solving, vertical and disjunctive thinking

40. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Stage 4 is characterised by cooperative presenting new idea in real-life, experiential, personal meaning-making, social-constructivist, dissemination, reflecting, judging, publishing

41. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net decreasing Transactional Distance 1 S- D- 2 S+ D- 3 S+ D+ 4 S- D+ cooperative sharing old collaborative creative collaborative disjunctive cooperative experiential

42. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net now the main points in this Transactional Distance Model : are that initially the student chats, ( not educatively, so here D- and without teaching tasks S- ) to share own background, to reduce anxiety, and to become comfortable and able then to engage S+ reasoning

43. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net now the main points in this Transactional Distance Model : then the student explains to others and must engage S+ reasoning at this Stage 2, social interactions may be fun or desirable but is no longer needed

44. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net now the main points in this Transactional Distance Model : then the teacher engages ( D+ ) and raises alternatives to be explored ( S+ ), and finally the student tries out a new idea in her own context ( S- ) with teaching guidance and assessment ( D+ )

45. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net this Transactional Distance Model succeeds through bringing the student from not knowing ( greatest Transactional Distance ) to knowing something ( zero Transactional Distance )

46. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Learning Transaction = requires 4 interactions 1 student’s prior knowledge and need are identified 2 the text or teacher gives an amount of information 3 the student outputs an own construction 4 the teacher or society confirms the meaning Three encounters / passes are needed to ‘learn’

47. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net decreasing Transactional Distance 1 S- D- 2 S+ D- 3 S+ D+ 4 S- D+ Cooperative sharing old Collaborative creative Collaborative disjunctive Cooperative experiential

48. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Four Categories in Transactional Distance Theory less Transactional Distance 1 S- D- 2 S+ D- 3 S+ D+ 4 S- D+ added Structure added Dialogue

49. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net now we have the scaffold or framework consisting of the four distinct Stages on which to put the essential kinds of interactions that we need to bring about learning, through reducing the Transactional Distance

50. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net difficulties are reported in achieving Stage 3 Renner 1976 found only 81% of final-year law students in 2 law schools reached Stage 3 Piaget 1977 acknowledged many people never reached Formal Operations level Stage 3 even in adulthood McKinnon 1976 found only 50% of college students at 7 colleges could reach Stage 3 Gunawardena 1997 and 2001 found in graduate students and teachers that the Stage 3 “collaboration simply did not happen” Meyer 2003 found only 29% of graduate students reached Stage 3 and Anderson 2007 only 13% of two graduate courses

51. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net How do other theories such as constructivism fit with this Transactional Distance Model ? Most theories each have their own special practice Behaviorism, and objectivism each suits the cooperative Stage 1 plus Stage 4 While cognitive constructivism suits Stage 2 and social constructivism suits Stage 3 Overall, constructionism suits the whole Model involving all four stages in sequence

52. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net let’s open up these points a little... Stage 1 T input : behaviourism Stage 4 T-moderated output : behaviourism Stage 1 + Stage 4 : behaviourism Stage 2 Ss told connections : cognitivism Stage 3 Ss discuss connections : constructivism T or S knows : cooperative so we lack collaborative – critical thinking skills so adopt constructionism

53. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net in constructionism... Learning is wholly within the student’s mind through interactions ( as in Conversation Model ) diversity helps to achieve collaborative Stage 3 so adopt Transactional Distance Model

54. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Stage 1 cooperative Stage 2 collaborative Stage 4 cooperative Stage 3 collaborative

55. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net the Transactional Distance Model is perfectly suited to early school education the initial stage involves cooperative sharing... this can be from the student herself ( best ) or from other students ( suits large classes ) or any source ( teacher, textbook or internet ) younger children might prefer doing some activities to generate own ideas to share with others

56. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net 1 each student first expresses her own ideas or own findings or experience 2 the teacher then asks students to express why they feel or think like they do 3 and then raises other new alternatives using a textbook or the internet 4 for the students to take away and try out themselves

57. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net The Transactional Distance Model : Kawachi underpinned by the widely accepted - Conversation Theory : Holmberg 1983, Grogono 1993, Laurillard 2002 - Transactional Distance Theory : Peters 1973, Moore 1993 - Constructionism Theory : Papert 1991, Gergen 2001

58. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Conversation Theory : Mitchell & Grogono 1993 - postulates that learning occurs through guiding transactions between a desirable target concept map model of knowledge and a student’s externalized model of prior understanding. - Such transactions include asking the student to articulate and make explicit own elaborations

59. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Conversation Model : learning transactions include appropriation - whereby the teacher or a good student picks up points from weaker students and shows how they can fit into a larger picture, to model greater understanding for the weaker students to then see elaboration - whereby conflicts, slight differences or diverging views are verbalized, and so lead to learning justification - whereby thought processes and strategic knowledge initially implicit are made explicit through verbalization to help both the enquirer and the justifier to learn

60. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net Harel, I., & Papert, S. (1991). Constructionism. Norwood, NJ : Ablex. Holmberg, B. (1983). Guided didactic conversation in distance education. Distance education : International perspectives, (pp. 114-122). London : Croom Helm. Gergen K.J., & Wortham, S. (2001). Social construction and pedagogical practice. In K.J. Gergen (Ed.), Social construction in context, (pp. 115-136). Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage. Laurillard, D. (2002). Rethinking university teaching : A conversational framework for the effective use of learning technologies. London : RoutledgeFalmer. Mitchell, P.D., & Grogono, P.D. (1993). Modelling techniques for tutoring systems. Computers & Education, 20 (1), 55-61. Moore, M. G. (1993). Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed), Theoretical principles of distance education, (pp. 22-38). London : Routledge. These plus my own Kawachi 1999 – 2012 published works available from me by email

61. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net 1979 ~ 2012 : - behaviourism for teacher-based, and skills - cognitivism for sequential teaching - cognitive constructivism within inside - social constructivism from outside - radical constructivism for student-centred - constructionism for e-learning - social constructionism for modern distance education

62. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net 2012 ~ 2025 : - Student-created content shared in learner’s own languages - Continuous scaffolds for task, group size, mode, media - Externalise examinations away from universities - Share courses, increase diversity

63. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net teachers accept a model depending on : - own early school experience - loyalties during own teacher-training - support from professional networks

64. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net teachers accept a model depending on : - own early school experience - loyalties during own teacher-training - support from professional networks hopefully we have all of these !

65. Open Education Network http :// www. open - ed. net You can download these slides freely from the website http : // www. open - ed. net / library / theories. ppt or by email to me at kawachi @ open - ed. net