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Biological Science
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Biological Science Biological science is the application of basic scientific principles to biological questions
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What do scientists do? Scientists observe nature, ask questions about what they observe, and systematically go about answering these questions.
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The Scientific Record An enormous record of observations, questions, and answers relating to the natural world has developed over time. This record provides a platform for the next round of observations, questions, and answers.
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Scientific Method The scientific method is a process that tests possible answers to questions about nature that have been formulated from careful observations. Answers supported or refuted by the results of these tests are then added to the scientific record.
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Attributes of the Method
The scientific method is used by scientists to insure that the answers to their questions are based on objective evidence and verifiable. Ideas must be testable and cannot deal with things that are supernatural because they are not testable.
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Common Elements Observing nature Asking a question
Proposing a hypothesis Designing a test Making Predictions Conducting the test Analyzing the results Drawing conclusions
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Observing Nature Gathering information using the raw senses or using equipment Keeping careful records of observations Observation=an aspect of a phenomenon that can be witnesses and recorded
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Asking a Question What causes something to happen?
How will something affect something else?
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Proposing a Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation which answers the original question and can be supported or refuted when tested
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Hypothesis Generation
Hypothesis generation uses inductive reasoning to jump to conclusions Inductive reasoning draws a general conclusion from individual facts
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Designing a Test Scientists design experiments to test their hypothesis Experiment=empirical test that provides data to test the validity of a hypothesis
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Making Predictions Often in the form of an “if/then” statement: “If the hypothesis is true, then such-and-such will occur” Uses deductive reasoning Deductive reasoning draws a specific conclusion from a general assumption
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Conducting the Test Performing the experiment and collecting data, or little facts, that will support or refute the hypothesis
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Analyzing the Results Assembling and describing data
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Drawing Conclusions The data does/does not bear out the predictions
The data does/does not support the hypothesis The data acts as additional observations for asking new questions and proposing new hypotheses
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Multiple Working Hypotheses
A set of alternative explanations: H1, H2, H3, etc. Each one can explain the observations and is supported by tests but none can be chosen over any other. Further testing may refute some or all of them.
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Strong Inference After rigorous testing that involves trying to refute all the working hypotheses one hypothesis may remain One can strongly infer that the remaining hypothesis is correct
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Strong Science Whenever you design an experiment to test a hypothesis, try to think of the experiment that would disprove it. If you cannot disprove it you may be able to make a strong inference.
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Null Hypothesis The null hypothesis is the hypothesis of no difference or nothing happening, H0
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Strong Hypothesis The null hypothesis is a strong alternative hypothesis because when you reject a null hypothesis the alternatives all indicate a difference or something happening.
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Strong Hypothesis Since there is no positive proof, scientific advances are made by the rejection of null hypotheses.
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Theory A hypothesis that has been supported by many different repeatable tests and seems to have no major inconsistencies.
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Theory A theory is the surviving hypothesis of a group of multiple working hypotheses A theory can also be used to predict behavior
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Conditions for a Theory
Logically consistent Nothing unnecessary (Occam’s Razor) Limited by boundary conditions Falsifiable Modifiable
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Basic Properties of Nature
Scientists assume that the natural world has some basic underlying properties Theories attempt to describe these properties
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Basic Properties of Nature
Since theories can be falsified but can never be proved beyond all doubt (Carl Popper’s Theorem) the basic underlying properties of nature can never be known with total certainty
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Unifying Theory It unifies a field of study.
It explains many seemingly unconnected phenomena because it describes a basic underlying property of nature. It can be used to predict many outcomes.
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Unifying Theories in Biology
Cell Theory Basic unit of structure capable of performing all life functions. Evolution Descent with modification from common ancestry.
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Unifying Theories in Geology and Physics
Plate Tectonics Relativity
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Scientific Laws Quantitative relationships between measurable quantities that are predicted by unifying theories, often in the form of equations or algorithms that are accepted by just about all scientists Ex. Law of Gravity
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Wrap Up
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What’s wrong with this order of common elements?
Observing nature Asking a question Designing a test Making Predictions Conducting the test Proposing a hypothesis Analyzing the results Drawing conclusions
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What’s wrong with this order of common elements?
Observing nature Asking a question Designing a test Making Predictions Conducting the test Proposing a hypothesis Analyzing the results Drawing conclusions
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Common Elements Observing nature Asking a question
Proposing a hypothesis Designing a test Making Predictions Conducting the test Analyzing the results Drawing conclusions
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What’s wrong with this order of common elements?
Observing nature Making Predictions Asking a question Proposing a hypothesis Designing a test Conducting the test Analyzing the results Drawing conclusions
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What’s wrong with this order of common elements?
Observing nature Making Predictions Asking a question Proposing a hypothesis Designing a test Conducting the test Analyzing the results Drawing conclusions
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What’s wrong with this order of common elements?
Observing nature Asking a question Proposing a hypothesis Designing a test Conducting the test Making Predictions Analyzing the results Drawing conclusions
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What’s wrong with this order of common elements?
Observing nature Asking a question Proposing a hypothesis Designing a test Conducting the test Making Predictions Analyzing the results Drawing conclusions
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Common Elements Observing nature Asking a question
Proposing a hypothesis Designing a test Making Predictions Conducting the test Analyzing the results Drawing conclusions
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Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning draws_____.
Inductive reasoning draws a general conclusion from individual facts.
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Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning is used to_____.
Inductive reasoning is used to jump to conclusions. Inductive reasoning is used to generate hypotheses.
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Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning draws_____.
Deductive reasoning draws a specific conclusion from a general assumption.
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Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning is used to_____.
Deductive reasoning is used to make predictions. Deductive reasoning is used to generate if/then statements.
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Hypotheses: H0, H1, H2, H3, etc. What is H0? What are H0, H1, H2, H3?
H0 is the null hypothesis of no difference or nothing happening. What are H0, H1, H2, H3? H0, H1, H2, and H3 are alternative working hypotheses that can explain observations and are supported by tests.
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Strong Inference One can strongly infer that, ______, the one remaining is probably correct. One can strongly infer that, after trying to refute all working hypotheses, the one remaining is probably correct.
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Theory A hypothesis that _____ and seems to have no major inconsistencies. A hypothesis that has been supported by many different repeatable tests and seems to have no major inconsistencies.
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Unifying Theory It explains many _____ because it describes a basic underlying property of nature. It explains many seemingly unconnected phenomena because it describes a basic underlying property of nature.
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Unifying Theory It can be used to _____ many outcomes.
It can be used to predict many outcomes.
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