1. Motivation and Emotion

2. Did You Know That?
The founding father of American psychology believed that there is a human instinct for cleanliness.
According to a leading psychological theory, if you had to wait in line for hours to purchase tickets for a concert, you would probably rate the event as more enjoyable that you would if the tickets had been easy to come by.
A researcher once swallowed a balloon to test the theory that stomach contractions signal hunger.
The adult weight of people who were adopted as babies is closer to the weight of their biological parents that to the weight of the parents who raise them.
Obese people typically have more fat cells than people of normal weight have.
There is no emotion center in the brain
Responding without thinking can be a lifesaver in some situations.

3. ?Questions? Why does Lucho play football so intensely?
Why do people try to climb Mount Everest or cross the Atlantic in a balloon?
Why are some people obsessed with fantasy football or baseball…while others cannot tell you the difference between the Panthers and the Braves?
Why do fools fall in love?

4. Motivation and Emotion
Motive
Specific need or desire, such as hunger, thirst, or achievement,
The urge to move towards one’s goals, to accomplish tasks
Emotion
Feeling, such as fear, joy, or surprise, that underlies behavior

5. Motivation
Motivation: An internal state that activates behavior and directs it towards a goal.
Meaning:
In other words, motivation includes various psychological factors that cause you to act a certain way at a certain time.
The words anger, fear, pain, starving, etc…can all trigger certain motivations within your body.
So how do psychologists attempt to explain these things?

6. Instincts
Inborn, goal-directed behavior that is characteristic of an entire species
Human behavior is not easily explained by instincts because
Most important human behavior is learned
Human behavior is rarely inflexible

7. Instinct Theory
In the 1900’s, William McDougall (1908) proposed that humans were driven by a variety of instincts.
Instincts: Are natural or inherited tendencies of an organism to make a specific response to certain environmental stimuli without involving reason.
For example, salmon have an instinctive urge to swim thousands of miles through ocean waters and up rivers until they reach the exact gravel spot where they were spawned years earlier. They then lay their eggs and die.

8. Instinct Theory
Psychologist William James proposed that humans have instincts such as cleanliness, curiosity, parental love, sociability, and sympathy.
Eventually, psychologists realized a flaw in the Instinct Theory.
Instincts do not explain behavior; they simply label behavior.

9. Drive-Reduction Theory
Something that motivates us moves us to an action.
The thing that motivates us starts with a need that leads to a drive.
Need: Biological or psychological requirement of an organism.
A need results from a lack of something that is desirable or useful.
We have both physiological and psychological needs.

10. Drive-Reduction Theory
Every need produces a drive.
Drive: A state of tension produced by a need that motivates an organism towards a goal.
We all have different drives with different goals!
For example, hunger drives us to eat and fatigue drives us to rest.

11. Drive – Reduction Theory
Drive-Reduction Theory: When an organism is deprived of something it needs or wants (such as food or water), it becomes tense and agitated. To relieve this tension, it engages in more or less random activity. So, biological needs “drive” an organism to act, and the organism strives to maintain homeostasis.
Homeostasis: The tendency of all organisms to correct imbalances and deviations from their normal state.

12. The Incentive Theory
The drive-reduction theory of motivation emphasizes the internal states of the organism; however, the incentive theory stresses the role of the environment in motivating behavior.
While a drive is something inside of us that causes us to act, our actions are directed towards a goal, or an incentive.
Incentive: An external stimulus, reinforcer, or reward, that motivates behavior.

13. The Incentive Theory
While drives push us to reduce needs, incentives pull us to obtain them.
For example, hunger may cause us to walk into a cafeteria, but the incentive for our action is the sandwich we hope to eat.
What is another example of the Incentive Theory?

14. Cognitive Theory
Cognitive Psychologists seek to explain motivation by looking at forces inside and outside of us that energize us to move.
They propose that we act in particular ways at particular times as a result of extrinsic and intrinsic motivations.
Extrinsic Motivation: Engaging in activities that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain external incentives.
Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in activities because they are personally rewarding or because they fulfill our beliefs and expectations.

15. Incentives External stimuli that prompt goal-directed behavior
We are often unaware of the incentive
Examples
Aroma of food may cause us to eat even when not hungry
Advertisements can lead us to buy a product

16. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation for a behavior is the behavior itself
Children playing is an example
Extrinsic motivation
Behavior is performed in order to obtain a reward or to avoid punishment
A bonus program is an example

17. Cognitive Theory Example
Example: If you spend hours and hours playing basketball because you wish to excel at the sport, you are following intrinsic motivation!
Example: If you hours playing basketball because your parents want you to excel at basketball, you are following extrinsic motivation.

18. Biological Motives
Hunger – What motivates you to seek food? Often you eat because of the sight and smell of, say, pizza makes you want to go to a restaurant.
At other times you eat because of habit. For example, if you always eat at 8pm, you become hungry every day around 8pm.
Water, Air, etc.

19. Hunger

20. Biological Factors
Hunger appears to be regulated by regions in the hypothalamus
Lateral hypothalamus acts as a feeding center, triggering the onset of eating
Ventromedial hypothalamus acts as a satiety center, stopping eating behavior
Paraventricular nucleus influences the drive to eat specific foods
In addition, areas in cortex and spinal cord also play a role

21. Biological Factors
Changes in blood glucose level, fats, carbohydrates, and insulin signal need for food
Leptin, a hormone released by fat cells, can signal satiety
Receptors in the stomach and a hormone released by small intestine also signal brain about satiety

22. Cultural and Environmental Factors
Responses to food are governed by learning and social conditioning
For example, time of day can trigger the body to become hungry
Culture also influences what we choose to eat and how much we consume

23. Eating Disorders Anorexia nervosa About 1% of adolescents afflicted
Intense fear of weight gain
Distorted body image
Refusal to maintain minimal normal body weight
Absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles (for women)
About 1% of adolescents afflicted
Approximately 90% of those are white upper- and middle-class females

24. Eating Disorders Bulimia nervosa
Recurrent episodes of binge eating
Recurrent behaviors to prevent weight gain, such as self-induced vomiting
Behaviors must occur at least twice a week for three months
Body shape and weight overly influence self-image
Symptoms occur independent of anorexia
About 1-2% of female adolescents afflicted
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are the most common eating disorders in more affluent nations

25. Obesity
Considered by U.S. Surgeon General to be the most pressing health problem today
Obesity can lead to increased risk for
Hypertension
Cardiovascular disease
Diabetes
Sleep apnea
Tendency may be inherited

26. Thirst

27. Thirst Both internal and external cues can trigger the thirst drive
Internal cues include level of fluids inside body cells and amount of fluids outside body cells
External cues can include advertisements and weather conditions

28. Social Motives Measuring need based solely on achievement.
I need the approval of certain people or groups.
Fear of Failure
Fear of Success

29. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

30. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
According to Abraham Maslow, there are 3 basic types of needs:
Fundamental Needs: Biological drives that must be satisfied to maintain life.
Psychological needs: The urge to belong and give and receive love, and the urge to acquire esteem.
Self-Actualization Needs: The pursuit of knowledge and beauty or whatever is required for the realization of one’s unique potential.

31. Emotions

32. Basic Emotions Plutchik proposed that there are eight basic emotions
Fear
Surprise
Sadness
Disgust
Anger
Anticipation
Joy
Acceptance

33. Plutchik’s Basic Emotions

34. Basic Emotions
Some have criticized Plutchik’s model as applying only to English-speakers
Revised model of basic emotions includes:
Happiness
Surprise
Sadness
Fear
Disgust
Anger

35. Theories of Emotion James-Lange theory Cannon-Bard theory
Environmental stimuli bring on physiological changes that we interpret as emotions
Cannon-Bard theory
Environmental stimuli elicit emotions and bodily responses simultaneously
Cognitive theory
Environment gives us clues that help us interpret physiological reaction

36. Theories of Emotion

37. Nonverbal Communication of Emotion
Voice quality
Facial expression
Body language
Posture and the way we move communicates information
Personal space
Explicit acts
For example, slamming doors

38. Emotions
What drives Michael Jordan to perfect his basketball game? How did he feel when he hit all of those winning shots? Was he tired, thirsty, excited, nervous, or happy?
It is very difficult to draw a clear line between motives and Emotions.
So what are the differences?
Well, let’s take a look shall we.

39. Emotion
Emotion: A set of complex reactions to stimuli involving subjective feelings, physiological arousal, and observable behavior.
See Page 329 in your text for a chart of the full range of emotions.

40. James – Lange Theory
Both William James and Carl Lange came to the conclusion at about the same time that “we use the word emotion to describe our visceral, or gut, reactions to the things that take place around us.
Because they came up with this theory at the same time, it was named the James-Lange Theory.

41. The Cannon – Bard Theory
The Cannon – Bard Theory: According to this theory, certain experiences activate the thalamus, and the thalamus sends messages to the cortex and to the other body organs.
The theory states that the brain sends two reactions – arousal and the experience of emotion. Yet, one does not cause the other.
So, when we use the word emotion, we are referring to the simultaneous burst of activity in the brain and gut reactions.

42. More about the various Theories
See Text Page 335 for more info!

43. Arousal Theory
People are motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal for a given moment
Yerkes-Dodson law
States that there is an optimal level or arousal for best performance on any task
The more complex the task, the lower the level of arousal that can be tolerated without interfering with performance

44. Yerkes-Dodson Law

45. Sexual Motivation

46. Biological Factors Testosterone Pheromones
Important in both men and women in early development
Not very important for regulating sexual activity in humans
Pheromones
Scents secreted which can promote sexual readiness, particularly in animals

47. Cultural and Environmental Factors
Human sexual motivation is much more dependent on experience and learning than on biology
Men are very responsive to visual stimuli
Women respond better to touch
Culture can influence what is sexually attractive

48. Human Sexual Response Cycle
Excitement
Plateau
Orgasm
Resolution

49. Sexual Orientation
Refers to the direction of an individual’s sexual interest
Heterosexual
Sexual attraction to other gender
Homosexual
Sexual attraction to same gender
Bisexual
Sexual attraction to both genders
Examination of causes of differing orientations is a nature-nurture debate

50. Other Motives Exploration and curiosity Manipulation and contact
Aggression
Intent is a key element of aggression
Aggressive behavior may be innate, although learning clearly plays a role
Aggression and culture
Gender and aggression
Males are more physically aggressive

51. Other Motives Achievement Affiliation Motivation to excel at a task
Desire is for achievement for its own sake
Affiliation
Motivation to be with others

52. Gender, Culture and Emotion

53. Gender and Emotion
Men and women feel emotions equally, but express them differently
Men and women may experience different emotions in the same situation
Anger
Men tend to direct their anger outward
Women tend to direct their anger inward
Women are more skilled at understanding nonverbal components of emotion

54. Culture and Emotion
Expression of emotion can be influenced by cultural norms
Some emotional displays are universal
Display rules
Culture-specific rules that govern how, when, and why expressions of emotion are appropriate