1. Linguistics and Grammar
ESOL Praxis – Session #2

2. Aspects of Language
Here is an illustration that shows an interacting hierarchy of levels in linguistics: 

3. Phonology
The study of sounds of a particular language and the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds.
Phonology is just one of several aspects of language. It is related to other aspects such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.
Is the basis for further work in morphology, syntax, discourse, and orthography design.
Analyzes the sound patterns of a particular language by determining which phonetic sounds are significant, and explaining how these sounds are interpreted by the native speaker.

4. Phonetic Alphabet
Universal alphabet representing sounds

5. Phoneme
The smallest linguistic unit of speech that can signal a difference in meaning.
How many phonemes in CATS?
Examples   A unit of speech is considered a phoneme if replacing it in a word results in a change of meaning. Here are some examples of phonemes:
pin becomes bin
bat becomes rat
cot becomes cut

6. Consonant Digraph Two consonants pronounced as a single sound.
Example: ch, sh, th, wh
In the word chat, the letters c and h appear contiguously, in this instance, ch is a digraph because the ch sequence represents a single sound in the underlying English sound system.

7. Digraph
A digraph is a group of two successive letters whose phonetic value is a single sound (one phoneme.)
Examples   Here are some examples of digraphs:
\ea\ in bread
\ch\ in chat
\ng\ in sing

8. Consonant Clusters
A group or sequence of two or more consonants that appear together in a syllable with no intervening vowel. (Two sounds put together
Example: \sp\ and \ts\ in the word spots and \spr\ in the word spray

9. Minimal Pairs Two words that differ in only one sound, or phoneme.
Examples (English)   Sounds which differ: /p/ and /b/
[lQp] ‘lap’
[lQb] ‘lab’

10. Homophones
A group of two or more letters representing the same speech sound, or words that sound the same but are spelled differently
Examples  
  Letters with the same speech sound:
c in city and s in song
Axe and acts

11. Homographs
A word that has the same spelling as another. Homographs differ from each other in meaning, origin, and sometimes pronunciation.
Examples  
bow, the front part of a ship
bow, to bend
bow, a decorative knot

12. Morphology
The study of words in their internal organization

13. Morpheme
The smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of a language. Includes all root-words, prefix, suffix and s within the context of the word.
Examples:  
Unladylike: The word unladylike consists of three morphemes (un – lady – like)
None of these morphemes can be broken up any more without losing all sense of meaning. Lady cannot be broken up into "la" and "dy," even though "la" and "dy" are separate syllables. Note that each syllable has no meaning on its own.
Dogs: The word dogs consists of two morphemes (dog – s) /s/ is a plural marker on nouns
Note that a morpheme like "-s" can just be a single phoneme and does not have to be a whole syllable.
Technique: The word technique consists of only one morpheme

14. Bound Morpheme
Must be attached to a root word to have full meaning (prefixes and suffixes)
Example: /un/ means not. /un/ has no meaning unless it is attached to a root word.
Unthinkable
/un/ (bound morpheme)
think (free morpheme)
/able/ (bound morpheme)

15. Free Morpheme
Base in root words that can stand alone.

16. Inflectional Morphemes
Affixes, prefix or suffix, that can be added to a morpheme to without changing part of speech.
Example:
Happy (adjective)
Unhappy (adjective)

17. Derivational Morphemes
Affixes, prefix and suffix, that can be added to a morpheme to change its meaning and may change its part of speech or semantic meaning.
Examples:
amaze > amazement,
speak > speaker,
perform > performance,
soft > softness,
warm > warmth

18. Organization of Learning
Form
(How)
Meaning
Use
(Situational)
Phonology
Morphology
Syntax (grammar)
Semantics
(vocabulary)
Pragmatics
Social Thinking Literacy
(The intent of the language, what is meant to be conveyed)

19. Syntax - Grammar
Governs the form or structure of a language; the way words are put together in a language to form phrases, clauses, or sentences.
The syntax of a language can be divided into two parts:
Syntactic classes such as noun, verb, and adjective
Syntactic functions, such as subject and object
Example:
The cat jumped on the table.
The flower jumped on the sound wave.
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

20. Active Voice
The subject performs action in the sentence or is the thing described by a predicate adjective.
Active voice is a voice that indicates a subject has the semantic function of actor.
Example
The subject Jones has the semantic function of actor.
Jones built the house.
The above active construction contrasts with the following construction in passive voice, where Jones has the semantic function of actor but house is the subject:
The house was built by Jones.

21. Passive Voice The action is performed by an unknown agent.
Passive voice is a voice that indicates that the subject is the patient or recipient of the action denoted by the verb.
The man was nudged by a passer-by.   The above example contrasts with the one below, which is in active voice:
  A passer-by nudged the man.

22. Degrees of Adjectives Base Comparative Superlative High Higher Highest
Thick
Thicker
Thickest
Beautiful
More Beautiful
Most Beautiful
Bad
Worse
Worst

23. Active Verb Tense hear play run am hearing is playing are running
Simple Present
Present Progressive
Simple Past
Past Progressive
Future
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Present Perfect Progressive
Future Perfect
hear
play
run
am hearing
is playing
are running
heard
played
ran
was hearing
was playing
was
running
will hear
will play
will run
have heard
has played
has run
had heard
had played
had run
has been hearing
has been playing
has been running
will have heard
will have played
will have run
Describes present action or condition
Shows action in progress
Shows completed action
Shows past action that took place over a period of time
Shows an action that will or will not happen in the future
Describes an action that began in the past but continues in to the present
Describes an event completed in the past prior to another event
Describes an action that began in the past, continues to the present and may continue in the future
Expresses an action that will be completed by or before a specified time in the future

24. Types of Pronouns Personal Relative Indefinite Demonstrative
Interrogative
reflexive
I, me, mine
you, your, yours
he, him, his
she, her, hers
It, its, who, whom, whose
we, us, ours
they, them, theirs
It is mine.
Who, whom, whoever, that, which
The chef who won the prize studied in Paris.
all, another, any, anyone, anything,
everyone,
everything, each, both, neither, no one, none someone, something, few, some, many, most, several
Everyone came to dinner.
this
that
these
those
That car is the one I want.
who
whom
which
what
Whose
Who is the author of that book?
myself
yourself
himself
herself
itself
ourselves
Yourselves
themselves
I will cook dinner myself.
Takes the place of a person, place or thing
Introduces a relative clause and links to another part of the sentence.
Refers to an unknown person, place or thing
Represents a thing or things
Used to ask questions
Ends in -self or -selves and refers back to another noun or pronoun in the sentence

25. Semantics
The study of word meanings, idioms, or non-literal expressions

26. Stops
Formed by completely blocking the air and releasing the bilabials – stopped lips

27. Fricatives
Produced by a constant flow of air through the vocal tract. /f/ /v/

28. Affricatives
Produced by briefly stopping air and then releasing with some friction church

29. Nasals
Sound comes through the nose /m/

30. Liquids
Make a smooth sound /l/ /r/

31. Aspiration
A strong burst of air that accompanies either the release or closure of some consonant sound formed by obstructing airflow.
Example:
tore, the /t/ is aspirated
Store, the /t/ is not aspirated