1. Linguistics and Grammar ESOL Praxis – Session #2

2. Aspects of Language Here is an illustration that shows an interacting hierarchy of levels in linguistics:

3. Phonology The study of sounds of a particular language and the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds. Phonology is just one of several aspects of language. It is related to other aspects such as phonetics, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics. Is the basis for further work in morphology, syntax, discourse, and orthography design. Analyzes the sound patterns of a particular language by determining which phonetic sounds are significant, and explaining how these sounds are interpreted by the native speaker.

4. International Phonetic Alphabet The IPA is a universal alphabet representing all of the sounds that have been found in human languages

5. Phoneme The smallest linguistic unit of speech that can signal a difference in meaning. – How many phonemes in CATS? – Examples A unit of speech is considered a phoneme if replacing it in a word results in a change of meaning. Here are some examples of phonemes: pin becomes bin bat becomes rat cot becomes cut Different languages use different sets of phonemes to communicate ideas.

6. Consonant Digraph Two consonants pronounced as a single sound. – Example: ch, sh, th, wh – In the word chat, the letters c and h appear contiguously, in this instance, ch is a digraph because the ch sequence represents a single sound in the underlying English sound system.

7. Digraph A digraph is a group of two successive letters whose phonetic value is a single sound (one phoneme.) Examples Here are some examples of digraphs: \ea\ in bread \ch\ in chat \ng\ in sing

8. Consonant Clusters A group or sequence of two or more consonants that appear together in a syllable with no intervening vowel. (Two sounds put together Example: \sp\ and \ts\ in the word spots and \spr\ in the word spray

9. Minimal Pairs Two words that differ in only one sound, or phoneme. Example: [læp] ‘lap’ [læb] ‘lab’ only one phoneme differs in this example – /p/ and /b/

10. Homophones A group of two or more letters representing the same speech sound, or words that sound the same but are spelled differently Examples – Letters with the same speech sound: c in city and s in song x in Axe and -cts in acts

11. Homographs A word that has the same spelling as another. Homographs differ from each other in meaning, origin, and sometimes pronunciation. Examples – bow, the front part of a ship – bow, to bend – bow, a decorative knot

12. Morphology The study of words in their internal organization

13. Morpheme The smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of a language. Includes all root-words, prefix, suffix and s within the context of the word. Examples: – Unladylike: The word unladylike consists of three morphemes (un – lady – like) None of these morphemes can be broken up any more without losing all sense of meaning. Lady cannot be broken up into "la" and "dy," even though "la" and "dy" are separate syllables. Note that each syllable has no meaning on its own. – Dogs: The word dogs consists of two morphemes (dog – s) /s/ is a plural marker on nouns Note that a morpheme like "-s" can just be a single phoneme and does not have to be a whole syllable. – Technique: The word technique consists of only one morpheme

14. Bound Morpheme Must be attached to a root word to have full meaning (affixes – i.e., prefixes and suffixes) – Example: /un/ means not. /un/ has no meaning unless it is attached to a root word. Unthinkable – /un/ (bound morpheme) – think (free morpheme) – /able/ (bound morpheme)

15. Free Morpheme Units of a word that can stand alone as words themselves.

16. Inflectional Morphemes Affixes (prefixes or suffixes) that can be added to a word without changing its part of speech. – Example: -un is an inflectional morpheme. It can be added to an adjective or adverb to change the word’s meaning. However, the word remains an adjective or adverb. Happy (adjective) / Happily (adverb) Unhappy (adjective) / Unhappily (adverb

17. Derivational Morphemes Affixes (prefixes and suffixes) that can be added to a word to change its meaning and may also change its part of speech – Examples: amaze (verb) > amazement (noun) speak (verb) > speaker (noun) Perform (verb) > performance (noun) soft (adjective) > softness (noun) warm (adjective) > warmth (noun)

18. Sample questions Which word do you hear when I say ______? A.[kut] B.[kæt] C.[cət] D.[cæʄ] How would native English speakers more than likely pronounce the word “laughed” A.[ lətId ] B.[left] C.[læft] D.[loft]

19. Organization of Learning Form (How) MeaningUse (Situational) Phonology Morphology Syntax (grammar) Semantics (vocabulary) Pragmatics Social Thinking Literacy (The intent of the language, what is meant to be conveyed)

20. Syntax - Grammar Governs the form or structure of a language; the way words are put together in a language to form phrases, clauses, or sentences. The syntax of a language can be divided into two parts: – Syntactic classes such as noun, verb, and adjective – Syntactic functions, such as subject and object Example: 1.The cat jumped on the table. 2.The flower jumped on the sound wave. 3.Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

21. Active Voice The subject performs action in the sentence or is the thing described by a predicate adjective. Active voice is a voice that indicates a subject has the semantic function of actor.subject Example – The subject Jones has the semantic function of actor. Jones built the house. – The above active construction contrasts with the following construction in passive voice, where Jones has the semantic function of actor but house is the subject:passive voice The house was built by Jones.

22. Passive Voice The action is performed by an unknown agent. Passive voice is a voice that indicates that the subject is the patient or recipient of the action denoted by the verb. subjectpatientverb – The man was nudged by a passer-by. The above example contrasts with the one below, which is in active voice: active voice – A passer-by nudged the man.

23. Degrees of Adjectives BaseComparativeSuperlative HighHigherHighest ThickThickerThickest BeautifulMore BeautifulMost Beautiful BadWorseWorst

24. Active Verb Tense Simple Present Present Progressive Simple PastPast Progressive FuturePresent Perfect Past Perfect Present Perfect Progressive Future Perfect hear play run am hearing is playing are running heard played ran was hearing was playing was running will hear will play will run have heard has played has run had heard had played had run has been hearing has been playing has been running will have heard will have played will have run Describes present action or condition Shows action in progress Shows completed action Shows past action that took place over a period of time Shows an action that will or will not happen in the future Describes an action that began in the past but continues in to the present Describes an event completed in the past prior to another event Describes an action that began in the past, continues to the present and may continue in the future Expresses an action that will be completed by or before a specified time in the future

25. Sample Questions I tried on my dad’s shoes and saw they were too bigs. I could barely walk. The underlined phrase has an error in the use of A.Adjectives B.Pronouns C.Verbs D.tense

26. Sample Questions She’s the same like my mom but is much beautifuller. The underlined phrase has an error in the use of A.Figurative language B.Superlative adjectives C.Relative clauses D.Comparative adjectives

27. Types of Pronouns PersonalRelativeIndefiniteDemonstrativeInterrogativereflexive I, me, mine you, your, yours he, him, his she, her, hers It, its, who, whom, whose we, us, ours they, them, theirs It is mine. Who, whom, whoever, that, which The chef who won the prize studied in Paris. all, another, any, anyone, anything, everyone, everything, each, both, neither, no one, none someone, something, few, some, many, most, several Everyone came to dinner. this that these those That car is the one I want. who whom which what Whose Who is the author of that book? myself yourself himself herself itself ourselves Yourselves themselves I will cook dinner myself. Takes the place of a person, place or thing Introduces a relative clause and links to another part of the sentence. Refers to an unknown person, place or thing Represents a thing or things Used to ask questions Ends in -self or -selves and refers back to another noun or pronoun in the sentence

28. Semantics The study of word meanings, idioms, or non- literal expressions

29. Sounds The manner of articulation Stop Affricate Fricative Nasal Lateral The point of articulation Bilabial Labiodental Interdental Alveolar Alveopalatal Velar

30. Stops Stops are consonants formed by completely stopping the flow of air somewhere in the vocal apparatus, and then releasing the air. 1. /p/ (the phoneme spelled p in pat): voiceless bilabial stop.bilabial 2. /t/ (the phoneme spelled t in tot): voiceless alveolar stop.alveolar 3. /k/ (the phoneme spelled c in cap): voiceless velar stopvelar

31. Fricatives Fricatives are consonants that are formed by impeding the flow of air somewhere in the vocal apparatus so that a friction-sound is produced. 1. /f/ (the phoneme spelled f in fine): voiceless labiodental fricative.labiodental 2. /ð/ (the phoneme spelled th in this): voiced interdental fricativeinterdental 3. /z/ (the phoneme spelled z in zoo): voiced alveolar fricative.alveolar

32. Affricatives or affricates Affricates are consonants that are formed by stopping the flow of air somewhere in the vocal apparatus, and then releasing the air relatively slowly so that a friction-sound is produced 1. /ʧ/ (the phoneme spelled ch in chip): voiceless alveopalatal affricate.alveopalatal 2. /ʤ/ (the phoneme spelled g in gyp): voiced alveopalatal affricate.alveopalatal

33. Nasals Nasals are consonants that are formed by blocking the oral passage and allowing the air to escape through the nose. 1. /m/ (the phoneme spelled m in mail): (voiced) bilabial nasal.bilabial 2. /n/ (the phoneme spelled n in nail): (voiced) alveolar nasal.alveolar 3. /h/ (the phoneme spelled ng in sing): (voiced) velar nasal.velar

34. Liquids Laterals are consonants formed by allowing the air to escape around the sides of the tongue. 1. /l/ (the phoneme spelled l in let): (voiced) alveolar lateral.alveolar

35. The POINT of articulation 1. /m/ (the phoneme spelled m in mail): (voiced) bilabial nasal.bilabial

36. The POINT of articulation /n/ (the phoneme spelled n in nail): (voiced) alveolar nasal.alveolar

37. Aspiration A strong burst of air that accompanies either the release or closure of some consonant sound formed by obstructing airflow. – Example: – tore, the /t/ is aspirated – Store, the /t/ is not aspirated

38. Study sites http://www.brainflips.com/study- flashcards/2652/Linguistics-ESOL-Praxis-test- Prep.html http://www.brainflips.com/study- flashcards/2652/Linguistics-ESOL-Praxis-test- Prep.html http://quizlet.com/subject/linguistics/ http://www.ets.org/Media/Tests/PRAXIS/pdf/ 0360.pdf http://www.ets.org/Media/Tests/PRAXIS/pdf/ 0360.pdf