1. Bell Ringer
19. A Hindu temple located in Texas is most likely the result of which kind of diffusion?
Expansion
Hierarchical
Contagious
Relocation
Stimulus
20. Compared to popular cultures, folk cultures are
More cosmopolitan
More homogeneous
More diffuse
More transitory
More contagious

2. Bell Ringer
21. Which of the following terms best describes the geographic boundary of one particular linguistic feature?
Language border
Toponym
Choropleth interval
Linguistic hearth
Isogloss
22. The predominance of English as the preferred language spoken at many international business meetings and political summits could be sited to support the claim that English is a popular
Creole Language
Pidgin language
Language branch
Dialect
Lingua franca

3. Bell Ringer
23. The English language belongs to which of the following branches of the Indo-European Language family?
Romanic
Hellenic
Celtic
Germanic
Armenian

4. CH III.1: Cultural Patterns and Processes (Language)

5. Language
Language is a set of sounds and symbols that is used for communication
Language is important to culture, reflecting, shaping, and influencing out thoughts
Loss of a language (Assimilation) can destroy a cultural identity
Language is also personal, explains how people view reality, and can be used as a weapon
Quebec (French Canada) largely has French as the “at home” language, and force business to operate in French, advertisements to be in French, and have attempted to succeed from Canada on multiple occasions.

6. Languages are not so simple
Monolingual Countries have only one official language that is spoken for all government business (France, Thailand, Brazil)
Multilingual countries have more than one official language (Canada, Belgium, Switzerland)
The USA has no official language, but notably only teaches in English
English has become the default language for the world, especially when multiple languages are involved. It is the new Lingua Franca (Airline Pilots ALWAYS speak English with a mixed passengers or flying from one language to another)

7. Can you communicate without speaking the same language
Can you communicate without speaking the same language. Short answer, Yes (sorta)
Mutual Intelligibility: argues that two people speaking to each other will understand each other (two people speaking different dialects)
Tricky because different languages and dialects prove exceptions
Mandarin Chinese and Cantonese Chinese speakers can not communicate with one another though they both speak CHINESE
Some Danish and Norwegian speakers CAN understand each other though you would think that those are two different languages.

8. Dialects & Standard Languages
Variants of the same language along regional or ethnic lines are called dialects (English & PROPER ENGLISH)
Dialects are unique in sound, speed, syntax, and vocabulary (lexicon Snow)
Isogloss is the boundary of a dialect [in which a particular linguistic feature occurs] (which can be hard to determine) Dialect chains acknowledge that languages CLOSE to each other will be more similar, but while distance increases dialects become less recognizable
Standard Languages
Is a language that is widely published, distributed, and purposefully taught
Standard languages could be maintained through state examination
France pushes French, Ireland pushes Irish, China pushes Mandarin Chinese even though it is just called Chinese

10. Language Families
Languages are broken into families to help differentiate them.
Subfamilies are used to show commonalities are more definite and origin is more recent
Language Groups refer to people whose language descended from the same common tongue (Romance Languages)
There are 20 major Language families
The Indo-European language family stretches the farthest
Chinese has the most speakers
Some languages are spoken in relatively few places, and survive in just 1 or part of 1 country (Laos, Cambodia)
Madagascar speaks a language from the Austronesian family (Southeast Asia), not the African Language Family as there is a believe that Madagascar & SEAsia one traded.

12. Language Formation
Languages are grouped into families based on similarities and differences
A Sound Shift is a slight change in a word across languages within a subfamily or through a language family
Family: Indo-European
Subfamily: Romance (All from Latin)
Languages: Italian, Spanish, French
Example: Milk
Latin: Lacte
Italian: Latta
Spanish: Leche
French: Lait

13. Proto-Indo European (PIE)
William Jones (1700s)
Studied Sanskrit in South Africa
After a period of time he became convinced that Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit were all connected
Jakob Grimm (19th Century- Yes the Fairytale guy)
Explained that languages have similar, but not identical, consonants
He suggested that consonants were “harder” the farther back towards the hearth a language went
Jones’ & Grimm’s ideas were combined together to suggest the existence of a Proto-Indo European language. This would suggest a common hearth for Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit
This would link languages from Sandinavia to Africa, and from North America to Asia & Australia.
Proto-Indo European (PIE)

14. Linguists call the process backward reconstruction, tracing the hardening of consonants “backwards” towards the original language
Sometimes it is possible to use large parts of extinct languages can be used to re-create the language (The whole process is called deep reconstruction)
Two Russian scholars (Vladislav Illich-Sqitych & Aharon Dolgopolsky) worked together to reconstruct the Nostratic Language
The Nostratic language is possibly the ancestor of the Proto-Indo-European, Indo-European, but also Kartvelin, Uralic-Altaic, and the Dravidian languages

15. August Schleicher (German) was the first to suggest the idea of the world’s languages as being branches on a tree
Languages form through language divergence, the breakdown in language first into dialects and then into new languages
If languages have consistent spatial interaction (are close enough constantly enough) language convergence can occur two languages become one
If no one speaks a language, a language becomes extinct

16. Renfrew Hypothesis Colin Renfrew (British)
Suggests that the three areas near the Fertile Crescent gave the rise to 3 language families
From Anatolia came the Indo-European Languages, from Western Fertile Crescent came the languages of North Africa and Arabia, & from Eastern Fertile Crescent came the languages of Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India

17. The Diffusion of Language
There are multiple theories of how language diffuses (Europe is always the focus Why?)
It is clear that language diffused into Europe
There is significant research and archeological studies done on the early peopling of Europe
Conquest Theory: The Speakers of (PIE) spread east to west on horses, conquering and defusing their language as they went
Agricultural Theory: The diffusion of PIE diffused west with the spread of agriculture
Luca Cavalli-Sforza & Albert Ammerman proposed that every generation (25 years) the agricultural frontier would me 18 KM (11 Miles). Languages would slowly be replaced, but some languages (Basque language) still survives
The Diffusion of Language

18. Dispersal Hypothesis: That Indo-European languages that came from PIE were first carries East into Southwest Asia, and then around the Caspian Sea, into the Russian-Ukrainian plains, and then into the Balkans
The exact hearth of the PIE is still unknown

19. Languages: Pidgin, Trade, & Creole
Sometimes languages combine to create a new language. A highly simplified mixture of languages for the purpose of communication between diverse groups is known as Pidgin Languages
When two groups with different languages need to trade they will create a modified language in order to communicate, known as a trade language. (An extension of Pidgin SPECIFICALLY for trading)
A stable language resulting from the blending of two or more languages that often do not share features of one another is known as a creole language. (Haitian African Languages & French) [Once a pidgin becomes a native language it becomes Creole]
A Creole is a person who is of European descent who was born in a European colonial area (Latin America or Carribean)

20. Languages: Families & Examples
Indo European Language Family
Subfamilies: Romance (French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, Portuguese), Germanic (English, German, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish), Slavic (Russian, Czech, Polish, Slovak, Ukrainian, Serbian, Bulgarian)
Largest in the world
There is a high correlation between language and political organization of space in Europe
Celtic survives in some places ( Parts of France, Wales, Ireland, & Scotland) but was largely overtaken by other languages
The Basque language has remained almost unchanged for 100s of years, and it strongly linked to the regions autonomy. The mountains of the region are credited with helping the language survive.

22. Sino-Tibetan Language Family
Examples: Chinese, Thai, Cantonese (Chinese), Burmese
About 20% of the world’s population
The most widely spoken language comes from this family Mandarin Chinese (Han Chinese, which 75% of Chinese people speak)
The Dialects of this language family can make it next to impossible for individuals to communication (as we discussed)

23. Afro-Asiatic Family Predominately spoken in Northern Africa
Arabic (most common)
Arabic is commonly spoke in Northern Africa & the Middle East
Other languages in this family are Hebrew, Somali, and Berber
Berber is spoken in Morocco and Algeria
Afro-Asiatic Family

24. Niger Congo Family & Outliers
The Language family that dominate Sub-Saharan Africa
Important languages are Swahili and Zulu
Over 9 million speak Zulu as their native language and 5 million Swahili
Outliers in Africa
The oldest language in Sub-Saharan Africa is the Khoisan Language, with are based of “clicks”
Khoisan was largely overtaken by Bantu after invasions of Bantu speaking people
Part of South Africa falls in the Indo-European Family for Afrikaans & English (a result of colonialization)

25. A place is a reflection of people’s activities, ideas, and tangible creations
To NAME a place, bringing a certain characteristic indicative to the people or culture that live there. This idea is known as a Toponym
Bayou
Los Angels
Kentucky (Iroquois- Land of tomorrow)
Cheektowaga (Seneca- Land of Crabapples
Minnesota (Lakota- sky-tinted water)
Cape of Good Hope (Originally Cape of Storms)
Place & Toponyms