1. Motivation (definition)
‘… those psychological processes that cause
the arousal,
the direction, and
the persistence
of voluntary actions that are
goal directed.”

2. Motivation Theories Need Theories Herzberg Two-Factor Theory
Cognitive Process
Theories
Behavioral Theory
Job Characteristics
Model

3. Need (or Content) Theories
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory

4. Maslow’s theory A Deprivation Theory An Orderly Hierarchy No Retreat
Made in America

5. Alderfer’s ERG Theory Existence Relatedness Growth Deprivation Theory
Person can descend hierarchy
Satisfaction-Progression
Frustration-Regression

6. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Satisfiers
Dissatisfiers

7. McClelland’s Theory Achievement Power Affiliation Individually Unique
socialized
personalized
Affiliation
Individually Unique
A Profile of Needs
Socially Acquired

8. Content Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Herzberg’s
Theory
McClelland’s
Learned Needs
Self-
Actualization
Growth
Motivators
Need for
Achievement
Esteem
Need for
Power
Belongingness
Relatedness
Hygienes
Need for
Affiliation
Safety
Existence
Physiological

9. Process theories
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Goal Setting

10. Expectancy Theory of Motivation
E-to-P
Expectancy
P-to-O
Expectancy
Outcomes & Valences
Outcome 1
+ or -
Effort
Performance
Outcome 2
+ or -
Outcome 3
+ or -

11. Expectancy Theory Expectancy Terms Probability Expectancy
Instrumentality
Valence
Effort to Performance
Performance to Outcome

12. Expectancy Issues Multiple outcomes are likely
Perception of outcome values determine choice
It is a multiplicative model (zero is significant)
Blockages possible from individual and organization

13. Expectancy Theory in Practice
Increasing the E-to-P expectancy
training, selection, resources, clarify roles, provide coaching and feedback
Increasing the P-to-O expectancy
Measure performance accurately, explain how rewards are based on past performance
Increasing outcome valences
Use valued rewards, individualize rewards, minimize countervalent outcomes

14. Equity theory
I/O = I/O

15. Equity theory: An exchange theory
Equity Terms:
Individual
Referent Other (comparison)
Ratio
Inputs
Outcomes

16. Responses to Inequity Change Inputs Change Outcomes
Cognitively Distort own I/O
Withdraw
Acting on Other
Change Referent (comparison) Other

17. Effective Goal Setting
Specific
Results-oriented
Task
Effort
Performance
Challenging
Commitment
Participation

18. Effect of Goal Difficulty on Performance
High
Area of
Optimal
Goal
Difficulty
Task Performance
Low
Moderate
Challenging
Impossible
Goal Difficulty

19. Rewards – are typically based on:
Membership & Seniority
Job Status
Internal & External equity
Competency
Skill-based pay
Task Performance

20. Performance-Based Rewards
Individual:
- piece rate - commissions
- merit pay - bonuses:
Team
- gainsharing - bonuses
Organizational
- profit sharing
- ESOP (employee owned)

21. The Trouble with Rewards
Rewards Punish
Rewards rupture relationships
Rewards ignore reasons
Rewards discourage risk-taking
Rewards undermine intrinsic motivation

22. Therefore…. Measure Performance Carefully
Ensure that Rewards are Relevant
Use Team Rewards
Ensure that rewards are valued
Watch for unintended consequences

23. Job Characteristics Model
Core Job
Characteristics
Critical
Psychological
States
Outcomes
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Meaningfulness
Work
motivation
Growth
satisfaction
General
effectiveness
Autonomy
Responsibility
Feedback
from job
Knowledge
of results
Individual
differences

24. Examples of Job Re-Design
Job Rotation
Job Enlargement
Job Enrichment

25. Reasons for Job Rotation
Increases motivation through skill variety
Fewer repetitive strain injuries
Creates multi-skilled work force

26. Job Enrichment Strategies
Empowering employees
giving employees more autonomy
feeling of control and self-efficacy
Forming natural work units
completing an entire task
assigning employees to specific clients
Establishing client relationships
employees put in direct contact with clients

27. Obstacles to Job Design
Difficult to accurately measure job characteristics
More team than individual job design
Resistance to change
Problem finding optimal level of enrichment and specialization

28. Elements of Self-Leadership
Reinforcement
Self-
Monitoring
Designing
Natural Rewards
Constructive
Thought Patterns
Personal
Goal Setting

29. Albert Ellis’s Fallacies – bad self-talk
Fallacy of Perfection
Fallacy of Approval
Fallacy of Should
Fallacy of Overgeneralization
Fallacy of Causation
Fallacy of Helplessness
Fallacy of Catastrophic Expectations