8 motivation and emotion.

Name: 8 motivation and emotion.
Uploaded: 2017-09-09T11:40:39+00:00
Duration: PTM34S16
Channel: Sharleen McDaniel
Description: 8 motivation and emotion.

8 motivation and emotion

why study motivation and emotion
why study motivation and emotion? The study of motivation not only helps us understand why some people are more driven to achieve than others but also why some people are driven to abuse drugs. Sexual behavior is another motivated activity, one that many struggle to understand—why are there different sexual orientations, for example? Emotions are a part of everything we do, affecting our relationships with others and our own health, as well as influencing important decisions. In this chapter, we will explore the motives behind our actions and the origins and influences of emotions.

Learning Objective Menu
LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches motivation LO 8.2 Three types of needs LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs LO 8.6 Motivation of sexual behavior and its variations LO 8.7 Three elements of emotion LO 8.8 James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion LO 8.9 Cognitive arousal theory, facial feedback hypothesis and Cognitive-mediational theory

LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation
Activities are started, directed, and continued Physical or psychological needs or wants are met Extrinsic motivation Action leads to outcome separate from or external to the person

Instinct Approaches to Motivation
LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation Instincts Biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior Exist in both people and animals Instinct approach Assumes people are governed by instincts similar to those of animals

Drive Reduction Approaches
LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation Connection between internal physiological states and outward behavior Need Requirement of material such as food or water Essential for survival of the organism

Drive Reduction Approaches
LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation Connection between internal physiological states and outward behavior Drive Psychological tension and physical arousal Arises from need Motivates organism to act Fulfills the need and reduces tension

Some people are driven to do strenuous, challenging activities even when there is no physical need to do so. When a drive is acquired through learning, it is called an acquired or secondary drive. Fulfilling an acquired drive provides secondary reinforcement. What might this rock climber find reinforcing about scaling this steep cliff?

Drive Reduction Theory
LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation Assumes behavior arises from physiological needs Needs cause internal drives to push the organism Satisfy need Reduce tension and arousal

LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation Primary drives Drives involving needs of the body such as hunger and thirst Acquired (secondary) drives Drives learned through experience or conditioning Examples: need for money or social approval

LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation Homeostasis Tendency for body to maintain a steady state

Figure Homeostasis In homeostasis, the body maintains balance in the body’s physical states. For example, this diagram shows how increased hunger (a state of imbalance) prompts a person to eat. Eating increases the level of glucose (blood sugar), causing the feelings of hunger to reduce. After a period without eating, the glucose levels become low enough to stimulate the hunger drive once again, and the entire cycle is repeated.

Three Types of Needs Need for achievement (nAch)
LO 8.2 Three types of needs Need for achievement (nAch) Involves a strong desire to succeed in attaining goals Includes realistic and challenging goals Need for affiliation (nAff) Need for friendly social interactions Relationships with others

Many people are driven by a need to attain both realistic and challenging goals. This young girl seems eager to provide an answer to the teacher’s question, and the teacher’s positive feedback will help foster the girl’s need for achievement.

Three Types of Needs Need for power (nPow)
LO 8.2 Three types of needs Need for power (nPow) Need to have control or influence over others

Donald Trump stands triumphant at the opening of his Trump International Hotel and Tower in New York. Many people who are as wealthy as “The Donald” continue to buy new houses, businesses, clothing, and cars (among other things) even though they do not need them. Such actions are examples of the need for power. How might this need for power be expressed in a person’s relationships with others, such as a spouse, employee, or friend?

Table 9.1 Sample Items From the Zuckerman-Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire

LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation
Arousal Approaches LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation Stimulus motive Appears to be unlearned Causes an increase in stimulation Example: curiosity

Arousal Approaches LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation Arousal theory People have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension Seek to maintain tension by increasing or decreasing stimulation Moderate level of tension appears best for most tasks

This daring preschool boy has climbed high into this massive tree and looks as though he might try to climb higher still.

Arousal Approach to Motivation
LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation Yerkes-Dodson law Performance is related to arousal Moderate levels of arousal lead to better performance Effect varies with the difficulty of the task: Easy tasks require a high-moderate level More difficult tasks require a low-moderate level

Arousal Approach to Motivation
LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation Yerkes-Dodson law Sensation seeker Needs more arousal than the average person May be related to temperament

Figure Arousal and Performance The optimal level of arousal for task performance depends on the difficulty of the task. We generally perform easy tasks well if we are at a high–moderate level of arousal (green) and accomplish difficult tasks well if we are at a low–moderate level (red).

Behavior is explained as a response to an external stimulus and its rewarding properties Incentives Attract or lure people into action Motivate

Expectancy-value theories Tolman and others Actions cannot be predicted without understanding beliefs, values and importance associated

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Presents a more positive view of human behavior Includes both deficiency needs and growth needs

LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Self-actualization Point that is seldom reached Individual has sufficiently satisfied lower needs Achieved full human potential Peak experiences Times where self-actualization is temporarily achieved

In the movie Castaway, Tom Hanks’s character is stranded on a deserted island. His first concern is to find something to eat and fresh water to drink—without those two things, he cannot survive. Even while he is building a crude shelter, he is still thinking about how to obtain food. Once he has those needs met, however, he gets lonely. He finds a volleyball, paints a handprint and then a crude face on it, and names it “Wilson.” He talks to the volleyball as if it were a person, at first as a kind of way to talk out the things he needs to do and later as a way of staying relatively sane. The need for companionship is that strong.

Figure Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow proposed that human beings must fulfill the more basic needs, such as physical and security needs, before being able to fulfill the higher needs of self-actualization and transcendence.

LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Cross-cultural research Suggests order of needs does not always hold true for other cultures Other theorists have developed and refined Maslow’s hierarchy

LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Alderfer (1972) Believed that more than one need could be active at a time Progression up and down the hierarchy is common One need assumes greater importance at a particular time than other needs

Self-Determination Theory
LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Three inborn universal needs to gain a complete sense of self Autonomy In control of one’s own behavior and goals Competence Able to master challenging tasks of one’s life

Self-Determination Theory
LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Three inborn universal needs to gain a complete sense of self Relatedness Sense of belonging, intimacy, and security in relationships with others

LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Intrinsic Motivation LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs External reward given for performance can have a negative impact Only with tasks that are not interesting External rewards may improve performance if value of task is understood

Researchers have found that when tasks are interesting, external rewards may actually increase intrinsic motivation, at least for a short while. This boy seems actively engaged in the learning process in his classroom, suggesting that he finds the subject interesting. External rewards such as praise from the teacher or gold stars may actually enhance his intrinsic motivation to succeed in this class. How might this child’s enthusiasm for learning affect the teacher’s intrinsic motivation?

LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs
Psychoactive Drugs LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Psychoactive drugs Alter thinking, perception, and memory Physical Dependence Body craves drug Tolerance More of drug is needed to achieve the same effect

One of the dangers of psychoactive drugs is that they may lead to physical or psychological dependence. Cocaine is a powerful and addictive stimulant and can be sniffed in through the nose or injected, as the man in this photograph is doing.

Psychoactive Drugs LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Physical Dependence Withdrawal Physical symptoms Can include nausea, pain, tremors, crankiness, and high blood pressure Results from a lack of drug in the body system

Psychoactive Drugs LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Psychological dependence Drug is needed to continue emotional or psychological well-being Powerful factor in continued drug use Any drug can become a focus of psychological dependence No physical withdrawal

Four Major Drug Categories
LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Stimulants Increase functioning of nervous system Depressants Decrease functioning of nervous system Narcotics Painkilling depressant drugs derived from opium poppy

Four Major Drug Categories
LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Hallucinogenics Alter perceptions May cause hallucinations

Stimulants LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Amphetamines Synthesized in labs rather than found in nature Quick tolerance and dependence Amphetamine psychosis Causes user to become delusional

Stimulants LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Cocaine Derived from coca plant leaves Produces euphoria, energy, power, and pleasure

Stimulants LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Nicotine Raises blood pressure and accelerates the heart Active ingredient in tobacco

Nicotine is highly addictive, and many smokers will go to great lengths to be able to smoke—including smoking right next to the “no smoking” sign.

Stimulants LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Caffeine Found in coffee, tea, most sodas, chocolate, some over-the-counter drugs Mild stimulant, maintains alertness Can increase effectiveness of pain relievers such as aspirin

Depressants LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Known as major tranquilizers Drugs that have a strong depressant effects Barbiturates Have a sedative (sleep-inducing) effect Overdoses can lead to death Breathing and heart action are stopped

Depressants LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Benzodiazepines Also called Minor Depressants Lower anxiety Include Valium, Xanax, Halcion, Ativan, Librium

Depressants LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Alcohol Product of fermentation or distillation of vegetable matter 10 to 20 million alcoholics in US Often confused as a stimulant Alcohol induced deaths in 2003: 20,687

Although many young adults see drinking as a rite of passage into adulthood, few may understand the dangers of “binge” drinking, or drinking four to five drinks within a limited amount of time. Inhibitions are lowered and poor decisions may be made, such as driving while intoxicated. Binge drinking, a popular activity on some college campuses, can also lead to alcoholism.

Narcotics LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Opium-related drugs that suppress sensation of pain Bind to receptor sites for endorphin Opium Derived from the opium poppy Morphine From opium, used to treat severe pain

Narcotics LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Bind to receptor sites for endorphin Heroin Derived from opium, extremely addictive Methadone Does not produce euphoria, treat addiction with

Hallucinogens LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Causes brain to alter its interpretation of sensations Produces sensory distortions LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) Synthesized from ergot Powerful synthetic hallucinogen

Hallucinogens LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Produces sensory distortions PCP Used as an animal tranquilizer Can cause stimulant, depressant, narcotic, or hallucinogenic effects Violent behavior often associated with use

Hallucinogens LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs MDMA (Ecstasy) Designer drug Stimulant and hallucinatory effects possible Dehydrates body, raises body temperature

Many of these young people enjoying themselves at a rave may be using MDMA, or Ecstasy. The dehydrating effect of the drug, together with the intense dancing and physical activity at raves like this one, can have a deadly effect on the user.

Hallucinogens LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Mescaline From buttons of the peyote cactus Used in some Native American religious and spiritual rituals Psilocybin Hallucinogen found in certain mushrooms

Marijuana LO 8.5 How drug addiction occurs Mild hallucinogen derived from the leaves and flowers of hemp plant Does not produce physical dependency or physical withdrawal symptoms Psychological symptoms often seen Considerable exposure to carcinogens when smoking

Table 8.2 How Drugs Affect Consciousness

LO 8.6 Motivation of sexual behavior and its variations
Kinsey Studies LO 8.6 Motivation of sexual behavior and its variations Sexual behavior surveys taken during 1940’s and early 1950’s Revealed that sexual practices such as masturbation, anal sex were common in US Believed sexual orientation was not an either/or situation One is not completely heterosexual or completely homosexual

Alfred Kinsey conducted many of his interviews face-to-face, as seen here. How might having to answer questions about one’s sexual behavior be affected by Kinsey’s presence?

Table 8.3 Key Findings from Kinseys Sexual Behavior Surveys

Janus Report LO 8.6 Motivation of sexual behavior and its variations Large-scale survey of sexual behavior in the United States in 1990s Results did not differ widely from Kinsey’s Looked at more types of sexual behavior and related factors Sexual deviance Behavior unacceptable according to societal norms and expectations.

Table 8.4 Findings from the Janus Report

Sexual Orientation LO 8.6 Motivation of sexual behavior and its variations Sexual orientation Attraction preference for members of a particular sex Heterosexual Attracted to opposite sex Homosexual Attracted to the same sex Bisexual Attracted to both men and women

LO 8.7 Three elements of emotion
The “feeling” aspect of consciousness Characterized by three elements: Physical arousal Behavior that reveals feeling to the outside world Inner awareness of feelings

Physiology of Emotion LO 8.7 Three elements of emotion Amygdala Located within the limbic system Associated with fear Emotion travels to amygdala by two routes Fast, crude “low road”- quick Slower, more complex “high road” involving cortical structures

The Behavior of Emotion: Emotional Expression
LO 8.7 Three elements of emotion Darwin Types and manner of facial expression are universal Recent research reveals at least seven basic emotions universal to all people Anger, fear, disgust, happiness, surprise, sadness, and contempt Display rules differ across cultures

Figure Facial Expressions of Emotion Facial expressions appear to be universal. For example, these faces are consistently interpreted as showing (a) anger, (b) fear, (c) disgust, (d) happiness, (e) surprise, and (f) sadness by people of various cultures from all over the world. Although the situations that cause these emotions may differ from culture to culture, the expression of particular emotions remains strikingly the same.

Subjective Experience: Labeling Emotion
LO 8.7 Three elements of emotion “Cognitive element” Labeling process involves retrieving memories of similar experiences Labels are learned responses reflected by culture Chinese tend to describe emotion in terms of bodily experience European Americans use more emotion in labeling

Common Sense Theory LO 8.7 Three elements of emotion A stimulus leads to: An emotion A bodily arousal of Autonomic Nervous System

Figure Common Sense Theory of Emotion In the common sense theory of emotion, a stimulus (snarling dog) leads to an emotion of fear, which then leads to bodily arousal (in this case, indicated by shaking) through the autonomic nervous system (ANS).

James-Lange Theory of Emotion
LO 8.8 James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion Physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion Stimulus produces physical arousal Arousal creates “flight or fight” of Sympathetic Nervous System Emotion is then labeled

Figure James-Lange Theory of Emotion In the James-Lange theory of emotion, a stimulus leads to bodily arousal first, which is then interpreted as an emotion.

LO 8.8 James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion
Cannon-Bard Theory LO 8.8 James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion Physiological reaction and emotion occur at the same time Physical changes caused by different emotions are distinct Allow them to be perceived as different emotions

Figure Cannon-Bard Theory of Stimulus In the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion, a stimulus leads to activity in the brain, which then sends signals to arouse the body and interpret the emotion at the same time.

Cognitive Arousal Theory
LO 8.9 Cognitive arousal theory, facial feedback hypothesis and cognitive-mediational theory Schachter and Singer Physical arousal and labeling of arousal based on cues from the environment Both must occur before the emotion is experienced

Figure Schachter-Singer Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion Schachter and Singer’s cognitive arousal theory is similar to the James-Lange theory but adds the element of cognitive labeling of the arousal. In this theory, a stimulus leads to both bodily arousal and the labeling of that arousal (based on the surrounding context), which leads to the experience and labeling of the emotional reaction.

Schachter and Singer’s Study of Emotion
LO 8.9 Cognitive arousal theory, facial feedback hypothesis and cognitive-mediational theory Both groups given epinephrine Participants exposed to “angry” man interpreted physical arousal as anger Participants exposed to “happy” man interpreted physical arousal as happiness Physiological arousal interpreted cognitively before it is experienced as a specific emotion

Facial Feedback Hypothesis
LO 8.9 Cognitive arousal theory, facial feedback hypothesis and cognitive-mediational theory Facial expressions provide feedback to the brain concerning the emotion Feedback causes and intensifies emotion Changing facial expression can impact how you feel

The facial feedback hypothesis assumes that changing your own facial expression can change the way you feel. Smiling makes people feel happy, and frowning makes people feel sad. This effect seems to have an impact on the people around us as well. If this is true, this smiling woman may make the airline steward handing her the food feel good, too. Is it hard for you to stay in a bad mood when the people around you are smiling and laughing?

Figure Lazarus’s Theory of Emotion In Lazarus’s cognitive-mediational theory of emotion, a stimulus causes an immediate appraisal (e.g., “The dog is snarling and not behind a fence, so this is dangerous”). The cognitive appraisal results in an emotional response, which is then followed by the appropriate bodily response.

Cognitive Mediational Theory
LO 8.9 Cognitive arousal theory, facial feedback hypothesis and cognitive-mediational theory Lazarus Most important aspect of any emotional experience is how the stimulus is interpreted Interpretation of the arousal that results in the emotion

Figure Lazarus’s Theory of Emotion In Lazarus’s cognitive-mediational theory of emotion, a stimulus causes an immediate appraisal (e.g., “The dog is snarling and not behind a fence, so this is dangerous”). The cognitive appraisal results in an emotional response, which is then followed by the appropriate bodily response.

Figure Comparison of Theories of Emotion These figures represent the six different theories of emotion as discussed in the text.

Figure 8.11 (continued) Comparison of Theories of Emotion These figures represent the six different theories of emotion as discussed in the text.

LO 8.9 Cognitive arousal theory, facial feedback hypothesis and cognitive-mediational theory “Getting Things Done” (GTD) Method Use attention grabbers - folder, notebook, computer program, spreadsheet, index cards Process and define what you can take action on, identify next steps

LO 8.9 Cognitive arousal theory, facial feedback hypothesis and cognitive-mediational theory “Getting Things Done” (GTD) Method Organize information and reminders into categories or contexts, based on need Complete weekly reviews of projects Do next actions in appropriate time frame

How do you keep track of all of your class assignments, appointments, and deadlines?

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