1. Leadership – motivation
Management
Leadership – motivation

2. Useful vocabulary Job design Job scope Job enlargement Job enrichment
Job depth
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Relational
Proactive
High-involvement
Equity theory
Expectancy theory
Open-book management
Employee recognition programs

3. Today’s lecture We will: Define motivation
Compare and contrast early theories of motivation
Compare and contrast contemporary theories of motivation
Discuss current issues in motivation

4. What is motivation?
Motivation - the process by which a person’s efforts are energised, directed, and sustained toward attaining a goal.
Motivation, or, to put it another way – why people do what they do – is behind most of our actions. We all do things for a reason; however, that reason is not always clear.

5. 3 elements of motivation
Intensity – how hard a person tries
Direction – effort that is channeled toward, and consistent with, organisational goals
Persistence – how long a person can maintain effort

6. RSA video Fun and interesting video on motivation:

7. Early motivation theories

8. Early theories of motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
McGregor’s Theories X and Y
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McClelland’s Three Needs Theory

9. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s theory is that people are motivated by needs. Once people have what they need, their needs change and develop. In the next diagram, you can see that these start at the bottom with basic physiological needs such as food and water. They then progress and change until self-actualisation is achieved.

10. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs - diagram
Self-actualisation
Esteem
Love
Safety
Physiological

11. What does it mean?
Maslow’s hierarchy looks at a person’s whole life, not just their work life.
However, work can fulfil some of a person’s needs to help them be more fulfilled and therefore more motivated.
The next diagram offers suggestions of how to interpret Maslow’s needs in a workplace context.

12. What does this mean? Maslow Fulfilment activities
Workplace fulfilment activities
Physiological
Food, water, sleep, sex
Money, working conditions, kitchen
Safety
Safety, security, stability, protection
Safe environment, job security, benefits
Social
Love, affection, belonging
Friendly supervision, good relationship with colleagues, membership of groups
Esteem
Self-esteem, self-respect, prestige, status
Job status, job title, positive feedback, recognition
Self-actualisation
Growth, advancement, creativity
Challenging work, opportunities for autonomy, achievement, promotion

13. Criticisms of Maslow People can be on multiple steps at the same time
People will move between different stages in both directions
Not based on research
There are a number of criticisms of the two-factor theory. There are some questions about the study itself. First, the participants had a self-serving bias. When things are going well, they will take credit themselves. When things are not going well, they tend to blame it on the environment or others. The second criticism is that the raters will incorporate their own biases in their observations. Finally, Herzberg’s look at satisfaction had some errors in it as there was no attempt to measure overall satisfaction and he assumed a relationship between satisfaction and productivity.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

14. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X - the assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, avoid responsibility, and must be coerced to perform.
Theory Y - the assumption that employees are creative, enjoy work, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction.

15. Criticisms of McGregor
Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
The assumptions moulded their behaviour toward employees
No empirical evidence to support this theory.

16. Herzberg’s two factor theory
Two-factor theory (motivation-hygiene theory) - the motivation theory that claims that intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction and motivation, whereas extrinsic factors are associated with job dissatisfaction.
Hygiene factors - factors that eliminate job dissatisfaction, but don’t motivate.
Motivators - factors that increase job satisfaction and motivation.

17. Herzberg’s two factor theory
Herzberg’s theory is in some ways similar to Maslow’s. He puts forward the suggestion that people have two sets of factors which contribute to their motivation:
Hygiene Factors
Motivators
Achievement
Responsibility
Growth
Work Conditions
Salary
Company Policies
Extrinsic and Related to Dissatisfaction
Intrinsic and Related to Satisfaction

18. Herzberg’s two factor theory

19. McClelland’s achievement motivation theory
He suggests that there are four main needs that everyone has:
The Achievement motive (n-Ach)
The Power motive (n-Pow)
The Affiliate motive (n-Affil)
The Avoidance motive (n-Avoid)

20. McClelland’s four needs
He suggests that everyone has a combination of these needs but that one tends to dominate.
The Achievement motive (n-Ach)
People with a high achievement need like to be successful and have positive feedback.
 The Power motive (n-Pow)
People with a high power need like to be in charge of people and/or organisations.
 The Affiliate motive (n-Affil)
People with a high affiliation need prefer to work with other people in teams and groups.
 The Avoidance motive (n-Avoid)
People with a high avoidance need will avoid situations which may provoke negative emotions in them.

21. Criticisms of McClelland
Focus in the research was mostly on nAch
Not very practical to use in organisations as a tool because of time taken to undertaken and expertise needed
Motivators are internal and difficult to identify and measure

22. Thematic Apperception Tasks - TAT pictures

23. Criticisms of McClelland
Focus in the research was mostly on nAch
Not very practical to use in organisations as a tool because of time taken to undertaken and expertise needed
Motivators are internal and difficult to identify and measure

24. Activity – individual reflection
What motivates you?
What makes you get out of bed in the morning?
What makes you attend lectures?
What makes you want to do well?
Select a theory and analyse your own motivations.

25. Contemporary theories of motivation

26. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Goal-Setting Theory
Reinforcement Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Self-Determination Theory
Management by Objectives (MBO)
Self-Efficacy Theory
Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Theory
There are a number of contemporary theories of motivation that have utilized the older theories to provide us with a deeper understanding of motivation in the workplace.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

27. Goal setting theory
That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance
Difficult Goals:
Focus and direct attention
Energize the person to work harder
Difficulty increases persistence
Force people to be more effective and efficient
Relationship between goals and performance depends on:
Goal commitment (the more public the better!)
Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
Culture (best match is in North America)
Edwin Locke developed what is called the goal-setting theory. The idea behind this theory is that goals that are specific and effectively difficult can lead to higher performance if they include self-generated feedback. A difficult goal will help the individual to focus and direct attention as well as energize them to work harder. The difficulty of the goal will increase persistence and force people to be more effective and efficient.
The relationship between goals and performance depends on how committed the individual is to the goal as well as how specific the tasks are. Most of the research has been done in the United States so the applicability of this theory to other cultures is suspect.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

28. Goal setting theory

29. Reinforcement theory
Reinforcement theory - the theory that behaviour is a function of its consequences.
Reinforcers - consequences immediately following a behaviour which increase the probability that the behaviour will be repeated. (reward, punishment, ignore)

30. Equity theory
Equity theory - the theory that an employee compares his or her job’s input-outcome ratio with that of relevant others and then corrects any inequity.
Referents - the persons, systems, or selves against which individuals compare themselves to assess equity.
Distributive justice - perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.

31. Equity theory’s “Relevant Others”
Can be four different situations:
Self-Inside
The person’s experience in a different job in the same organisation
Self-Outside
The person’s experience in a different job in a different organisation
Other-Inside
Another individual or group within the organisation
Other-Outside
Another individual or group outside of the organisation
There are four different type of situations that arise with the equity theory’s relevant others; they are as follows:
* Self-inside where the person compares themselves with someone else within the organisation who holds a different job;
* Self-outside where the person compares themselves with someone outside of the organisation with a different job;
* Other-inside where the person compares another individual or group of individuals within the organisation; and
* Other-outside where the person compares another individual or group of individuals outside of the organisation.
All these factors are based on the individual’s perceptions of what is equitable or fair.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

32. Reactions to inequity Employee behaviours to create equity:
Change inputs (slack off)
Change outcomes (increase output)
Distort/change perceptions of self
Distort/change perceptions of others
Choose a different referent person (focus on another person to reference)
Leave the field (quit the job)
Employees will often react strongly to situations they perceive as inequitable. They normally engage in behaviours to create equity, such as slacking off when they feel they are working harder than others or quitting when they see no way to make things equitable. There are also some responses to inequitable pay that employees engage, such as producing more when they are overpaid or producing lower quality outputs when they feel they are underpaid.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

33. Reactions to equity Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
Paid by time:
Over-rewarded employees produce more
Under-rewarded employees produce less with low quality
Paid by quality:
Over-rewarded employees give higher quality
Under-rewarded employees make more of low quality

34. Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory - the theory that an individual tends to act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

35. Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
ie, people will do more if they believe there is a good reward

36. Expectancy theory details
Expectancy Relationships
Expectancy (effort-performance linkage)
The perceived probability that an individual’s effort will result in a certain level of performance.
Instrumentality
The perception that a particular level of performance will result in attaining a desired outcome (reward).
Valence
The attractiveness/importance of the performance reward (outcome) to the individual.

37. Expectancy model

38. Global Implications Motivation theories are often culture-bound:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Order of needs is not universal
McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
nAch presupposes a willingness to accept risk and performance concerns – not universal traits
Equity Theory
a desire for equity is not universal
“Each according to his need” – socialist/former communists
desire for interesting work seems to be universal.
There is some evidence that the intrinsic factors of Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory may be universal
Unfortunately, in the area of motivation theory, the vast majority of research has been done in the United Sates and is culturally bound. There does seem to be a universal acceptance that a desire for interesting work is common across the globe, but there is no research to support this.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

39. Designing motivating jobs

40. Designing motivating jobs (1)
Job design - the way tasks are combined to form complete jobs.
Job scope - the number of different tasks required in a job and the frequency with which those tasks are repeated.
Job enlargement - the horizontal expansion of a job that occurs as a result of increasing job scope.

41. Designing motivating jobs (2)
Job enrichment - the vertical expansion of a job that occurs as a result of additional planning and evaluation of responsibilities.
Job depth - the degree of control employees have over their work.
Job characteristics model (JCM) - a framework for analyzing and designing jobs that identifies five primary core job dimensions, their interrelationships, and their impact on outcomes.

42. Five core job dimensions
Skill Variety: degree to which the job incorporates a number of different skills and talents
Task Identity: degree to which the job requires the completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work
Task Significance: how the job impacts the lives of others
Autonomy: identifies how much freedom and independence the worker has over the job
Feedback: how much the job generates direct and clear information about the worker’s performance
The job characteristics model looks at describing any job in terms of five core job dimensions. These job dimensions include skill variety, which is the degree to which the job incorporates a number of different skills and talents. Task identity is another dimension that looks at the degree to which the job requires the completion of whole and identifiable piece of work. Task significance is included and looks at how the job impacts the lives of others. Autonomy, the fourth dimension, identifies how much freedom and independence the worker has over their job. And finally, feedback is how much the job generates direct and clear information about the worker’s performance.
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

43. Job characteristics model

44. Contemporary job design approaches (1)
Relational perspective - focuses on how people’s tasks and jobs are increasingly based on social relationships.
Proactive perspective - in which employees take the initiative to change how their work is performed.
High-involvement work practices - work practices designed to elicit greater input or involvement from workers.

45. Guidelines for job re-design

46. Current issues in motivation

47. Integrating modern theories of motivation

48. Global issues in motivation (1)
Motivational programs are most applicable in cultures where individualism and achievement are cultural characteristics (eg USA).
Uncertainty avoidance of some cultures inverts Maslow’s needs hierarchy
Eg, security needs – Japan, Greece Mexico
Eg, social needs – Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Netherlands

49. Global issues in motivation (2)
The need for achievement (nAch) is lacking in other cultures (eg, Chile, Portugal)
Collectivist cultures view rewards as “entitlements” to be distributed based on individual needs, not individual performance (eg, socialist countries)

50. Motivating a diverse workforce
Motivating a diverse workforce through flexibility:
Men desire more autonomy than do women.
Women desire learning opportunities, flexible work schedules, and good interpersonal relations
Gen Y and older workers have different needs

51. Motivating a diverse workforce (2)
Compressed workweek
Longer daily hours, but fewer days
Flexible work hours (flextime)
Specific weekly hours with varying arrival, departure, lunch and break times around certain core hours during which all employees must be present
Job Sharing
Two or more people split a full-time job
Telecommuting
Employees work from home using computer links

52. Motivating unique groups of workers (1)
Motivating Professionals
Characteristics of professionals
Strong and long-term commitment to their field of expertise
Loyalty is to their profession, not to the employer
Have the need to regularly update their knowledge
Don’t define their workweek as 8:00 am to 5:00 pm.

53. Motivating unique groups of workers (2)
Motivating Contingent Workers
Opportunity to become a permanent employee
Opportunity for training
Equity in compensation and benefits
Motivating Low-Skilled, Minimum-Wage Employees
Employee recognition programs
Provision of sincere praise

54. Designing appropriate rewards
Open-book management - a motivational approach in which an organisation’s financial statements (the “books”) are shared with all employees.
Employee recognition programs - programs based on personal attention and expression of interest, approval, and appreciation for a job well done.
Pay-for-performance programs - variable compensation plans that pay employees on the basis of some performance measure.

55. Summary Today: Early motivation theories Modern motivation theories
Designing motivating jobs
Contemporary issues in motivation
Tomorrow:
Leading - communication

56. Reading
Please read Chapter 15 before tomorrow’s lecture.