2. Emerging Hinduism after 500 BCE

3. The Smrtis (Secondary Scriptures) The Itihasas The Puranas The Agamas The Darsanas The Law-books—dharma-sastras

4. The Code of Manu 1. Traditionally very ancient, the material seems to be collected between 200 BCE and 200 AC—purported to be written by Manu, the first law-giver 2. Some call it a “charter of Brahmin domination”—gives an extraordinarily exalted status to the caste 3. Proclaims “divine right of kings” 4. Emphasizes dharma—usually seen as not being static and said to contain precepts which aim at securing the material and spiritual sustenance and growth of the individual and society

5. Twelve Books in the present text: 1. The creation of the visible universe “The universe existed in darkness, imperceptible, and finable, undiscoverable and undiscovered; as if immersed in sleep. Then the self-existing power undiscovered himself, and making the world discernible, with the five elements and the other principles, appeared in undiminished glory, dispelling the gloom. He whom the mind alone can perceive, whose essence eludes the sense-organs, who has no visible parts, who exists from eternity, even he, the soul of all beings, shone forth in person”

6. “For the sake of the preservation of this entire creation, [Purusha], the exceedingly resplendent one, assigned separate duties to the classes which had sprung from his mouth, arms, thighs, and feet Teaching, studying, performing sacrificial rites, so too making others perform sacrificial rites, and giving away and receiving gifts---these he assigned to the brahmans. Protection of the people, giving away of wealth, performance of sacrificial rites, study, and nonattachment to sensual pleasures—these are, in short, the duties of a kshatriya.

7. Tending of cattle, giving away of wealth, performance of sacrificial rites, study, trade and commerce, usury, and agriculture—these are the occupations of a vaishya. The Lord has prescribed only occupation [karma] for a shudra, namely, service without malice of even these other three classes..... The very birth of Brahmans is a constant incarnation of Dharma, God of justice, for the Brahman is born to promote justice, and to secure happiness. No greater crime is known on earth than flaying a Braham, and the king, there, must not even reform in his mind the idea of killing a priest.”

8. 2-3. On education and the preparation for the Brahmanical life 4. Personal ethics and conduct 5. The diet of the “twice-born” 6. Ascetic and devotional practices “Let him patiently hear hard words. Let him not insult anybody. Against an angry man let him not in return show anger. Let him bless when he is cursed. 7-8. The duties of a ruler, with details governing civil and criminal offenses

9. 9-10. On the government of women and families and the laws of cast “Their fathers protect them in childhood; their husbands protect them in youth; their sons protect them in age. A woman is never fit for independence. Women have no business with the text of the Veda. Women must be honored and adorned by their fathers, brothers, husbands, and brothers-in-law who desire great good fortune. Where women, verily, are honored, there the gods rejoice; where, however, they are not honored, there all sacred rites prove fruitless” 11. Penances, sacrifices, preparation of the soma juice, and the ceremonies accompanying the soma sacrifice Offenses and penances are first put into graded lists 12. The laws of karma and rebirth

10. The Itihasas: (Ramayana) (Mahabharata) Stories in song of the noble deeds of great national heroes

11. The Ramayana

12. I. Author—purported to be Valmiki (4 th -2 nd BCE) A. Divided into 7 books (kandas), containing 24000 verses B. Tells of adventures and misfortunes of Rama, who was born in Ayodhya to Dashartha, king of Kosala C. Rama, Lakshmana, and Sita exemplify Dharma— in good times and bad---classic story of triumph of good over evil D. Shows how Rama generated the power to follow the path of Dharma in all circumstances by the discipline of tapas (heat) E. Enacted in festivals today in Rama LIlas F. It is said that “whoever reads and recites the holy and life-giving Ramayana is freed from fault and reaches heaven.”

13. G. Story of Ramayana 1. Balakanda—deals with childhood of the four princes and tells how Rama and his brother Lakshmana defeat demons and how Sita is given to Rama through his prowess 2. Ayodhyakanda—describes how Rama is supplanted as Dashartha’s successor and is exiled to the forest with Lakshmana 3. Aranyakanda—deals with the forest exile and how the sister of Ravana, the demon king of Lanka, desires Rama. Because Rama spurns her, she abducts Sita. Rama grieves in his loss and searches for his beloved in vain 4. Kishindhakanda—tells how Rama aids Sugriva, king of the monkeys, who in return sends Hanuman to find Sita

14. 5. Sundarakanda—describes how Hanuman finds Sita and frustrates Ravana 6. Yuddhakanda—tells of the battle between Rama an Ravana. Sita proves her faithfulness by throwing herself onto a trial fire, which does not harm her. She is vindicated by Agni 7. Uttarakanda—supplemental stories, culminating with the death of Sita, abandonment by Rama of his body and their reunion in heaven

15. H. One version of the story, Adyatma Ramanyana developed the concept that Rama was more than a hero—that both he and Sita were avatars of Vishnu I. In this version, the events become allegories of what happens in the human search for God when God seems far away J. Tulsi Das (c. 1532-1632 CE) wrote the Ramacaritmanas (The Holy Lake of the Acts of Rama)—a retelling of the story in language accessible to the common people K. It has been called the “Bible of northern India” L. Ghandi used the story as the establishment of Rama- rajra, a reign of truth and nonviolence as the ideal

16. The Mahabharata

17. I. Main theme is the rivalary between the cousins, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, which culminates in the greattle battle of Kuruksetra—both houses were descended from the Vedic tribe of the Bharatas, which gave India her name Bharat Five brothers of the Pandavas family

18. II. Purported to be written by sage Vyasa, from traditions occurring between (c.400 BCE-400 CE) III. Consists of more than 1000,000 rhyming couplets in 18 books IV. Within its many plots and sub-plots a constant theme is the unfolding of Dharma guiding the Pandavas, and of Adharma guiding the Kauravas V. Intended by Vyasa to be a treatise on: A. Life itself—including religion and ethics B. Polity and government (artha sastra) C. Philosophy and the pursuit of salvation (moksa sastra)—the two longest books (Santi Parva and Anusasana Parva) deal with these subjects

19. VI. Krishna is the cousin of the Pandavas—from his instructions of the chariot driver Arjuna comes the Bhavagavad Gita (The Song of the Blessed Lord) A. The Gita forms Book 6, composed of 18 sections and 700 verses—it explores Arjuna’s crisis of conscience B. Krishna seems to have had his origins among the tribes of Western and Central India, who at first seemed to be a secular or religious leader and later deified C. Seems to have been written a little before the Christian era to no later than the 2 nd century CE

20. The Bhavagad Gita Henry David Thoreau (1817- 1862) American Philosopher, Unitarian, social critic, transcendentalist and writer: Henry David Thoreau (1817- 1862) American Philosopher, Unitarian, social critic, transcendentalist and writer: "In the morning I bathe my intellect in the stupendous and cosmogonal philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita in comparison with which our modern world and its literature seems puny." source: The Writings of Henry D. Thoreau - Walden 1989. Princeton Univ. Press. page 298.) "In the morning I bathe my intellect in the stupendous and cosmogonal philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita in comparison with which our modern world and its literature seems puny." source: The Writings of Henry D. Thoreau - Walden 1989. Princeton Univ. Press. page 298.)The Writings of Henry D. Thoreau - WaldenThe Writings of Henry D. Thoreau - Walden

21. The reader is nowhere raised into and sustained in a bigger, purer or rarer region of thought than in the Bhagavad-Gita. The Gita's sanity and sublimity have impressed the minds of even soldiers and merchants." He also admitted that, "The religion and philosophy of the Hebrews are those of a wilder and ruder tribe, wanting the civility and intellectual refinements and subtlety of Vedic culture." Thoreau's reading of literature on India and the Vedas was extensive: he took them seriously. (source: The Secret Teachings of the Vedas. The Eastern Answers to the Mysteries of Life - By Stephen Knapp volume one. pg- 22).The Secret Teachings of the Vedas. The Eastern Answers to the Mysteries of Life

22. . Lord Warren Hastings (1754-1826), was the first governor general of British India. Hastings was very much impressed and overwhelmed with Hindu philosophy: He wrote with a prophetic and resounding pronouncement on the whole body of Indian writings:. Lord Warren Hastings (1754-1826), was the first governor general of British India. Hastings was very much impressed and overwhelmed with Hindu philosophy: He wrote with a prophetic and resounding pronouncement on the whole body of Indian writings: Hastings "The writers of the Indian philosophies will survive, when the British dominion in India shall long have ceased to exist, and when the sources which it yielded of wealth and power are lost to remembrances." (source: Philosophy of Hinduism - An Introduction By T. C. Galav Universal Science-Religion. Pg 19) "The writers of the Indian philosophies will survive, when the British dominion in India shall long have ceased to exist, and when the sources which it yielded of wealth and power are lost to remembrances." (source: Philosophy of Hinduism - An Introduction By T. C. Galav Universal Science-Religion. Pg 19)Philosophy of Hinduism - An IntroductionPhilosophy of Hinduism - An Introduction " I hesitate not to pronounce the Gita a performance of great originality, of sublimity of conception, reasoning and diction almost unequalled; and a single exception, amongst all the known religions of mankind.." (source: India Discovered - By John Keay p- 25). " I hesitate not to pronounce the Gita a performance of great originality, of sublimity of conception, reasoning and diction almost unequalled; and a single exception, amongst all the known religions of mankind.." (source: India Discovered - By John Keay p- 25).India Discovered India Discovered

23. Ralph Waldo Emerson, (1803-1882) author, essayist, lecturer, philosopher, Unitarian minister said this about the Gita: Ralph Waldo Emerson, (1803-1882) author, essayist, lecturer, philosopher, Unitarian minister said this about the Gita: " I owed a magnificent day to the Bhagavad-Gita. It was as if an empire spoke to us, nothing small or unworthy, but large, serene, consistent, the voice of an old intelligence which in another age and climate had pondered and thus disposed of the same questions which exercise us." " I owed a magnificent day to the Bhagavad-Gita. It was as if an empire spoke to us, nothing small or unworthy, but large, serene, consistent, the voice of an old intelligence which in another age and climate had pondered and thus disposed of the same questions which exercise us."

24. Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) the English novelist and essayist, born into a family that included some of the most distinguished members of the English ruling class, says that the Gita is for the whole world. He is one of those who enriched the West greatly with the wisdom of the East. Aldous Huxley (1894-1963) the English novelist and essayist, born into a family that included some of the most distinguished members of the English ruling class, says that the Gita is for the whole world. He is one of those who enriched the West greatly with the wisdom of the East. "The Bhagavad-Gita is the most systematic statement of spiritual evolution of endowing value to mankind. The Gita is one of the clearest and most comprehensive summaries of the spiritual thoughts ever to have been made Hence Huxley thought its enduring value, not only for Indians, but for all mankind." (source: Philosophy of Hinduism - An Introduction By T. C. Galav Universal Science- Religion. Pg 65). HuxleyPhilosophy of Hinduism - An IntroductionHuxleyPhilosophy of Hinduism - An Introduction

25. This is what Gandhi wrote about the Bhagavad Gita: Gandhi "The Geeta is the universal mother. I find a solace in the Bhagavadgeeta that I miss even in the Sermon on the Mount. When disappointment stares me in the face and all alone I see not one ray of light, I go back to the Bhagavad Gita. I find a verse here and a verse there, and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming tragedies - and my life has been full of external tragedies - and if they have left no visible or indelible scar on me, I owe it all to the teaching of Bhagavadgeeta." About the Bhagawad-Gita, Gandhi, says: “Today the Gita is not only my Bible or my Koran, it is more than that—it is my mother... When I am in difficulty or distress I seek refuge in her bosom.” (source: Harijan 24-8-1934).

27. The Gita teaches, unlike the Upanishadic outlook on life which is individualistic 1. It teaches that humanity has a duty to promote the stability, solidarity, and progress of society 2. There is an emphasis on one doing one’s dharma 3. It also emphasizes, however, that all classes are essentially equal 4. Some would say the greatest aspect of the Gita is that it synthesizes the various approaches of Indian religious traditions 5. Some say that the Gita has several levels of interpretation—ethical, philosophical, mystical or spiritual

35. The Four Paths (MARGAS) to Salvation: Bhakti--devotionKarma—workJnana—knowledge Raja—mental-physical discipline

36. Four Stages of Life I. Student (brahmacarin) II. Householder (grhastha) III. Forest Dweller (vanaprastha) IV. World Renouncer & Wandering Ascetic (sannyasin)

38. The Puranas I. The Puranas and the Itihasas together are known as the 5 th Veda (pancamo vedah) II. Tradition recognizes 18 main Puranas and an equal number of subsidiary ones (upa-puranas) III. The chief Puranas are: Brahma, Padma, Visnu, Siva, Bhagavata, Narada, Markandeya, Agni, Bhavisya, Brahmavivarta, Linga, Varaha, Skanda, Vamana, Karma, Matsya, Garuda and Brahmanada

39. IV.Generally, the Puranas have five chief characteristics A. History B. Cosmology (with symbolical illustrations of philosophical principles C. Secondary creation D. Genealogy of King s E. Histories of the solar and lunar dynasties of gods and sages

40. V. Many consider the Puranas to have been written to popularize the religion of the Vedas VI. Six are sattvic Puranas and glorify Vishnu; six are rajasic Puranas and glorify Brahma; six are Tamasic Puranas and glorify Siva

41. IV.The most popular is the Bhagavata-purana A.It is a chronicle of the various incarnations of the Bhavagan, or Visnu B.Visnu is said to have descended (avatarana) nine times and it is prediced that he will come again at the end of the Kali Age

42. C. The ten incarnations are: Matsya the Fish, Kurma the Tortoise, Varaha the Boar, Narasimha the Man-lion, Vamana the Dwarf, Parasurama the destroyer of the Ksatriya race, Ramacandra the son of Dasaratha and consort of Sita, who put an end to Ravana (10 headed asura), Krishna the Lord of the Gopis and teacher of the Gita and Buddha, the Prince-ascetic of Buddhism

43. The Incarnations of Vishnu Blake Nolingberg Connie Recinto Robert Mun Karen Cheng Nhu Banh Sharon Chang

44. Introduction A. Who is Vishnu 1) Vishnu is a minor Vedic* god that rose to prominence in the Puranic period 2) He is called "The Preserver" diety. (Vish in Sanskrit means preserve) 3) Vishnu re-incarnates himself to save the world from darkness or restore balance between good and evil.

45. Introduction (cont’d) B. What is an Avatar 1) An avatar is an earthly being that God has "descended"in to. 2) Avatara is the Sanskrit word for descend.

46. Matsya (The Fish) Asura hayagrvia stole the four Vedas from Brahma Asura hayagrvia stole the four Vedas from Brahma Four-Vedas-the Holy books from the mouth of the Supreme-Deity Four-Vedas-the Holy books from the mouth of the Supreme-Deity Pralaya-when the Universe will be reabsorbed in Brahma's divine sleep Pralaya-when the Universe will be reabsorbed in Brahma's divine sleep Rishi (Sage) Satyavrata- the manu- the first parents for each cycle. Rishi (Sage) Satyavrata- the manu- the first parents for each cycle.

47. Matsya (cont’d)

48. Kurma (The Tortoise) Vishnu in this form offers his back as the pivot on which rests Mt. Mandara, while the gods and demons churn with its various valuable objects from the ocean milk. Vishnu in this form offers his back as the pivot on which rests Mt. Mandara, while the gods and demons churn with its various valuable objects from the ocean milk.

49. Varaha (The Wild Boar) Hiranyaksha, after receiving a boon of immortality from Brahma, dragged the earth to to the bottom of the sea. Vishnu assumed the form of the boar and defeated the demon. Vishnu balanced the earth on the horn above his snout and brought the earth back to safety.

50. Varaha (cont’d)

51. Narasimha (The Man Lion) The fourth incarnation of Lord Vishnu, is half-lion, half-human in order to alleviate the sufferings of devotees. The fourth incarnation of Lord Vishnu, is half-lion, half-human in order to alleviate the sufferings of devotees.

52. Narasimha (cont’d)

53. Vamana (The Dwarf) The first human form that Vishnu takes in his cycle. Lord Vishnu incarnates himself as a dwarf, symbolizing the underdeveloped stage of mankind. The first human form that Vishnu takes in his cycle. Lord Vishnu incarnates himself as a dwarf, symbolizing the underdeveloped stage of mankind.

54. Vamana (cont’d)

55. Parashurama (The Man with Axe) He is the sixth incarnation of Vishnu at the close of SATYAYUS (The 1 st millennium of Hindu Mythology calculus- KAPAL) He is the sixth incarnation of Vishnu at the close of SATYAYUS (The 1 st millennium of Hindu Mythology calculus- KAPAL) He carried the axe on his shoulder and traversed the earth twenty-one times, chopped off all the arrogant Kshatriya, wiping out the entire royalty. He carried the axe on his shoulder and traversed the earth twenty-one times, chopped off all the arrogant Kshatriya, wiping out the entire royalty. The New World had been created. The New World had been created.

56. Parashurama (cont’d)

57. Rama (The Perfect Human) Another avatar of Vishnu. Rama is the hero of the epic story Ramayana Another avatar of Vishnu. Rama is the hero of the epic story Ramayana Qualities of Rama Qualities of Rama Honor Courage Valor Model of Manliness

58. Rama (cont’d)

59. Krishna (The Divine Statesman) He is the author of one of the most sacred books of the Hindus. He is the author of one of the most sacred books of the Hindus. The three Noble Paths: The three Noble Paths: 1. Yoga (knowledge): Yoking mind and body to achieve perfect unity beyond the limits of thought and language

60. Krishna (cont’d) 2.Dharma (righteousness): religious duties and custom 3.Bhakti (devotion): Love to a personal God and complete surrender to Him.

61. Balarama & Buddha The 8 th /9 th incarnation differs between two incarnations in three traditions. The 8 th /9 th incarnation differs between two incarnations in three traditions. 1) The first tradition holds that Krishna's older brother Balarama is Vishnu's 8th incarnation. 2) The second tradition holds that Buddha was the 9th incarnation to save Hinduism from corruption.

62. Balarama & Buddha (cont’d) 3) The third tradition holds that the Buddha was the 9th incarnation and founded a false religion to purify Hinduism of heretics. This account is found in the Vishnu Purana but doesn't mention Buddha by name as Mayamoha (the harmful deluder). This tradition affirms that Balarama was an incarnation of Shesh Nag,Vishnu's snake that he often is pictured reclining on.

63. Kalki (The Man on Horse) In this form Vishnu will descend when the world is wholly depraved, destroy utterly the wicked, and restore the happy conditions of the Age of Virtue. In this form Vishnu will descend when the world is wholly depraved, destroy utterly the wicked, and restore the happy conditions of the Age of Virtue.

64. Kalki (cont’d)

65. D. Purpose of Kuma was to enable to world to recoer precious things that were lost in the deluge E. Purpopse of Varaha was to recsue from the waters, the earth which had been dragged down by a demon named Hiranyaksha F. Purpose of Narashima, half-man and half lion, was to free the world from oppression of Hiranyakasipu, a demon the father of Bhakta Prahlada

66. G. Purpose of Rama was to destroy the wicked Ravana H. Purpose of Krishna was to destroy Kamsa and other demons and to deliver the message of the Gita I. Object of Buddha was to prohibit animal sacrifice and teach piety J. Object of Kali is the destruction of the wicked and the reestablishment of virtue

67. Bhavishva Purana Bhavishva Purana 1.Written in 115 CE 2.Records an encounter of King shalivahana with a religious figure from the West 3.The following is from verses 16-33 of the third khanda of the Pratisarga parvan of the Bhavishya Mahapurana

68. “The king asked the holy man who he was. The other replied: ‘I am called a son of God, born of a virgin. Minister of the non-believers, relentless in search of the truth.’ The king then asked him, ‘What is your religion?’ The other replied, ‘O great king, I come from a foreign country, where there is no longer truth and where evil knows no bounds. In the land of the non-believers, I appeared as the Messiah. But the demon Ihamasi of the barbarians (daysu) manifested herself in a terrible form; I was delivered unto her in the manner of the non- believers and ended in Ihamsasi’s realm.

69. “’O king, lend your ear to the religion the I brought unto the non-believers; after the purification of the essence and the impure body and after seeking refuge in the prayers of the Naigama, man will pray to the eternal. Through justice, truth, meditation, and unity of spirit, man will find his way to Isa in the center of light. God, as firm as the sun, will finally united the spirit of all wandering beings in himself. Thus, O King, Ihamasi will be destroyed; and the blissful image of Isa, the giver of happiness, will remain forever in the heart; and I was called Isa-Masih.’ After the king heard these words he took the teacher of the non-believers and sent him to their pitiless land.”

70. The Agamas I. They are theological treatises and manuals of worship II. Divided into the three main sects of A. Saivas recognize 28, chief of which is Kamika B. Sakta recognizes 77 Agamas (known also as the Tantras) C. Vaisnavas consider the Pancaratra Agamas to be authoritative

71. III. According to George Feurestein, (Moksha Journal) Tantrism includes the following features: A. Initiation and spiritual discipleship with a qualified adept (guru) B. The belief that mind and matter are manifestations of a higher, spiritual Reality, which is our ever-present true nature

72. C. The belief that the spiritual Reality (nirvana) is not something distinct from the empirical real of existence (samsara) but inherent in it D. The belief in the possibility of achieving permanent enlightenment or liberation while still in the embodied state E. The goal of achieving liberation/enlightenment by means of awakening the spiritual power—called kundalini shakti—dormant in the human body- mind

73. E. The belief that we are born many times and that this cycle is interrupted only at the moment of enlightenment, and that the chain of return is determined by the moral quality of our lives through the action of karma F. The assumption that we live at present in the Dark Age (kali-yuga) and that therefore we should avail ourselves of every possible act on the spiritual path, including practices that are deemed detrimental by conventional morality

74. I. The belief in the magical efficacy of ritual, based on the metaphysical notion that the microcosm (i.e., the human being) is a faithful reflection of the macrocosm (i.e., the universe) J. The recognition that spiritual illumination is accompanied by, or creates access to, a wide array of psychic powers, and a certain interest in the exploitation of these powers both for spiritual and material purposes

75. K. The understanding that sexual energy is an important reservoir of energy that should be used wisely to boost the spiritual process rather than block it through orgasmic release L. An emphasis on first-hand experience and bold experimentation rather than reliance on derived knowledge

76. M. Tantrism, then is an occult or esoteric tradition of arcane disciplines. This means that its teachings are secret or “hidden” and cannot, or at least should not, bedivulged to the uninitiated. Indeed, traditionally, the Tantric initiates were sworn to secrecy.

77. N. The Kularnava-Tantra reads: You must keep this a secret and not impact it to anyone but a devotee and disciple; otherwise it will case their fall.

78. Five M’s I. Madya—Wine (literal) Cocoanut Water (substitutional) Intoxicating knowledge of God attained by Yoga, by which one becomes senseless of the outer world (symbolic)

79. II. Mamsa—Meat (literal) Garlic, ginger, salt, seasamum, wheat, beans (substitutional) Consignment of all things to mam, Me (symbolic)

80. III. Matsya—Fish (literal) Red radish, brinja, etc. (substitutional) Sense of mine-ness, mat-sya, indentification with oneself as a result of which pleasure and pain in the universe are shared (symbolic)

81. IV. Mudra—Parched cereal (literal) Rice, paddy, etc. (substitutional) Relinquishing association with evil (symbolic)

82. V. Maithuna—union with woman (literal) Offering of flowers with appropriate gesture of union (substitutional) Union of Kundalini with the Siva-Sakti in the Sahasrara (symbolic)

83. Left-handed Worship preparation I. The preparations consist of various processes of symbolic purification

84. II. The actual taking of the ingredients is accompanied by meditation on the vicarious nature of the observances—i.e., that it is not the sadhaka as a ephemeral individual who takes them but that they are being fed to the goddess residing in his body as the Kundalini (the coiled-up body of the Kaula or Tantric in-group)

85. III. Along with the acts of taking the four M’s, the sadhaka also silent Japa (repetition) of his own bija, i.e., the secret bija given to him by his guru which is the mantra of his choice

86. IV. Let us always bear in mind that whatever the manner in which ritual is conducted in India.... The postulated target is never to be sought in the enjoyment of the used materials; it is not any time a hedonistic motive that directs the ritualistic acts

87. V. The sadhaka should then perform mental worship of the basic Sakti (adhara-Sakti), whose microcosmic aspect is the kundalini coiled up in the base-centre (muladhara) of the yogic body, injecting her image into the centre of the triangular mandala on the couch, with these (unpronounced, mentally repeated) words “Om Hrim worship to the basic Sakti (and to the) lotus seat (i.e., the couch)

90. The Six Darsanas The principle tenets are stated in the form of sutras—or short aphorisms—they are intended to be as short as possible and free from doubt

91. Nyaya—logical realism I. Basic text is the Nyaya Sutra, written about 400 BCE by Gautama II. Emphasizes logic—it is analytical philosophy III. Distinctive character is its critical examinations of the objects of knowledge by means of the canons of logical proof—systems of Hindu thought generally accept fundamental Nyaya logic

92. IV. Nyaya literally means “that by which the mind is led to a conclusion” A. The means of valid knowledge are called pramanas B. In the Nyaya system there are four pramanas 1. Intuition (pratyaksa)—the most important, originally meant sense-perception but came to include immediate apprehension, whether through senses or not. Mind is a prerequisite of perception—it is able to mediate between the self and the senses

93. 2. Inference (anunana)—knowledge which follows other knowledge—also a knowledge which is preceded by perception. Includes both deductive and inductive inference The five-membered syllogism The five-membered syllogism (1) pratijna—the thesis to be established—the hill has fire (2) hetu—gives the reason on which the thesis is based— because it has smoke (3) udaharana—substantiates the reason by citing an example—whatever has smoke has fire (4) upanaya—shows a correlation between the example and present instant— this hill has smoke which is invariably concomitant with fire (5) nigamana—drawing the conclusion as a settled fact—therefore this hill has fire

94. 3.Comparison or analogy (upamana)— knowledge gained of an object from its similarity to others 4.Verbal knowledge or testimony (sabda)—refers to authority. Here are discussed words, their meanings, and whether they refer to individual, forms, or genus. Testimony may be of the Veda or of secular speech

95. Vaisesika—atomistic pluralism I.Basic text is Vaiseki-sutra written by Kanada, 4 th or 3rd century BCE II.It is a system of physics and metaphysics, adopts a sixfold classification of the objects of experience, substance, quality, activity, generality, particularity, and inherence—later a 7 th was added, nonexistence III.Reality consists of substances possessed of qualities IV.Existence of soul is inferred from the fact that consciousness cannot be a property of the body, the sense organs or the mind

96. V. It accepts the atomic views—things are composed of invisible, eternal atoms, which are incapable of division— there are four kinds of atoms—earth, water, light, air VI. The system is regarded as non-theistic VII. Though the soul is all-pervading, its life of knowing, feeling, and willing resides only where the body is

97. Samkhya--dualism I. One of the oldest systems of thought in India; concepts are found in the Mahabharata II. Developer is Kapila, 7 th century BCE III. Noted for its theory of evolution and for the reduction of numerous categories to two fundamental catergories—purusha and prakriti A. All experience is based on the duality of a knowing subject—purusha—and the known object—prikriti

98. B. Prakriti is basis of all objective existence—it is the world of becoming, pure potentiality 1. It is not being or force, it is a state of tension of the 3 gunas—sattva, rajas and tamas a. Sattva is potential consciousness b. Rajas is the source of activity c. Tamas is the source of that which resists activity d. The three produce pleasure, pain, and indifference respectively 2. When the three elements are held in equipose there is no action

99. 3. Where there is a disturbance, the process of evolution begins a. From the sattva aspects arise the mind (manas), the five organs of perception, and the five organs or instruments of action b. From its tamas aspect arise the five final or subtle elements c. Its rajas aspect supplies the energy for both of these developments

100. C. Creation is the unfolding of the different effects from the original prakriti and destruction is the dissolution of them into the original prakriti D. Salvation in the Sankhya system is through Yoga—thus the system of Sankhya-Yoga

101. Yoga—mind control I. Patanjali wrote the Yoga-sutra, 5 th century CE II. Yoga is the discrimination between subject and object, purusha and prakriti, which means the establishment of the self in its purity III. It is a methodical effort to attain perfection, through the control of the different elements of human nature, physical and psychical IV. Yoga accepts the Sankhya psychology and metaphysics V. It is more theistic than Sankhya

102. VI. The ego is different from the self and is dependent on the experience of the world VIII. The life of the ego is restless and unsatisfied, being subject as it is to the five afflictions: A. Ignorance of the mistaking of the non-eternal for the eternal B. The erroneous identification of oneself with the instruments of body and mind C. Attachment to pleasant things D. Hatred of unpleasant things E. The instinctive love of life and the dread of death

103. VIII. The special features of Yoga is its practical discipline by which the suppression of mental states is brought about through the practice of spiritual exercises and the conquest of desire IX. It gives the 8-fold method of abstention, observation, posture, breath-control, withdrawal of the senses, fixed attention, contemplation, and concentration X. Ethical living is the preparing ground for Yoga

104. Purva Mimamsa I. First systematic work is by Jaimini who wrote the Mimamsa-sutra, c. 400 BCE II. Can be seen as a kind of “back to the Vedas” movement III. Its central problem is the investigation of dharma, duty, as it is taught in the Vedas IV. The Vedas are said to be eternally valid—they are not the work of God, they are uncreated, and the seers apprehend and transmit them

105. V. Acts are stressed with a view to their results VI. Between an act and its result there is a necessary connection—an act performed today may achieve its result in some later date, and in the meantime the result is in the form of an unseen force VII. The system has no need for a deity

106. Vedanta I. The Vedanta-sutra written by Badarayhana, 400 BCE II. It deals with the final aim, or end, of the Vedas—thus Vedanta III. In the 555 sutras an attempt is made to systematize the teaching of the Upanishads IV. Those sutras which consists of 2 or 3 words each cannot be understood without a commentary—the chief commentators are Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhva

107. Advaita Vedanta nondualism I. One writer notes that “the non-duality of Brahman, the non-reality of the world, and the non- difference of the soul from Brahman—these constitute the teaching of Advaita.” II. Shankara, 8th century CE, claims he is merely expounding what is contained in the Vedas II. Shankara, 8th century CE, claims he is merely expounding what is contained in the Vedas III. In the introduction to his commentary he asks whether there is anything in experience which may be regarded as foundational III. In the introduction to his commentary he asks whether there is anything in experience which may be regarded as foundational IV. Our senses may deceive us; our memory be an illusion IV. Our senses may deceive us; our memory be an illusion

108. V. The forms of the world may be pure fancy; the objects of knowledge may be open to doubt, but the doubter himself cannot be doubted VI. “All means of knowledge exist only as dependent on self-experience and since each experience is its own proof there is no necessity for proving the existence of self. The self, then, is Atman, it is existence, knowledge, and bliss. It is universal and infinite.” VII. The object world is dependent. It is changing but is not a mental fiction. VIII. We perceive objects; we do not invent the corresponding ideas

109. IX. The world perceived is as real as the individual perceiver X. He denies that the world is non-existent or void—but it is not ultimate reality XI. Our ignorance is born of a confusion of the transcendental subject Atman with empirical existence, Anatman X. Brahman is different from the space-time world we live in A. It is the non-empirical, the non-objective, the wholly other B. It is the highest being

110. XI. Atman is the same as Brahman, the essence of the subject XII. The empirical world cannot exist by itself, it is wholly dependent on Brahman, but the changes of the empirical order do not affect the integrity of Brahman XIII. To remove ignorance is to realize truth—we reach wisdom when error is conquered XIV. By the practice of ethical values and by the pursuit of devotion and knowledge we reach the goal of self- realization—moska XV. On the attainment of freedom nothing happens to the world, only our view of it changes XVI. Moska is the dissolution of the world by the replacement of a false outlook (avidya) by the right outlook, wisdom (vidya).

112. Visistadvaita Qualified non-dualism I. Ramanuja, 11 th century CE II. He emphasizes three ultimate realities: God (Isvara), soul (Cit), and matter (Acit) III. All things are real but the world and the selves depend on God IV. There is a continued individual existence of the released selves V. While Brahman is eternally free from all imperfections, matter is unconscious and the individual selves are subject to ignorance and suffering prior to release

113. VI. God, selves, and the world form a unity VII. Brahman is the self and the controlling power of the body, which includes the selves and the world VIII. Apart from Brahman they are nothing IX. The individual self and nature are essentially different than God, although they have no existence or purpose to serve apart from Him X. Brahman has two forms—selves and matter XI. Salvation is not the disappearance of the self, but its release from limiting barriers—the self cannot be dissolved into God—there will always be a God superior to humanity

114. Dvaita Dualism I. Madva, 12 th century CE II. Holds that God, selves, and the world exist permanently, but the latter two are subordinate to God and dependent on God III. God is endowed with a supernatural body and is regarded as transcendent to the world as well as immanent in it; he is the inner ruler of all selves. IV. Everything on earth is a living organism

115. V. The self is not an absolute agent, since it is of limited power and is dependent on God VI. It is by nature blissful, though it is subject to pain and suffering on account of its connection with a material body due to its past karmas VII. Salvation is the perpetuation of the individual self in the condition of release, where the self takes delight in adoration and worship of God VIII. Liberation is life in heaven and not the state of ultimate release.

116. Karma Yoga The Way of Works I. An ancient and aristocratic way—ritual and deeds II. Important is the Code of Manu and other Dharma Sastras

117. Carvaka I. Carvaka assumed various forms of philosophical skepticism, logical fatalism, and religious indifference II. Origin can be traced as far back as the Rig-Veda; mentioned in the epics, Buddha’s dialogues, and the Bhagavad Gita III. Main work is the Brhaspati Sutra (600 BCE)—the whole book is not available today

118. IV. Doctrine is called Lokayata, for it holds that only this world (loka) exists and that there is no “beyond” A. There is no future life and perception is the only source of knowledge—what is not perceived does not exist B. Consciousness is a material and transitory modification of the four elements (earth, water, fire, and air) and will disappear when these elements are dissolved C. The soul is only the body qualified by intelligence—it has no existence from the body D. The postulates of religion, God, freedom, and immortality are illusions

119. E. Nature is indifferent to good and evil, and history does not bear history to a divine providence F. Pleasure and pain are the central facts of life G. Virtue and vice are not absolute values but mere social conventions

120. Modern & Contemporary Movements

121. Brahmo-Samaj I. Founder was Ram Mohun Roy (1772-1833)—father of modern India II. Between ages of 15 and 20 he wandered through India in search of knowledge—going as far as Tibet III. He became successful in English administration A. One of first Indians to edit and publish newspaper B. Started several secondary schools C. Led a successful campaign sati and organized a religious society, the Brahmo-Samaj, or society of the worshippers of God, which was to exercise a deep influence on the social and religious life of modern India

122. IV. He was first to give serious attention to fundamental tenents of Christianity and welcomed its humanitarian message V. A convert to the movement, Debendranath Tagor, strengthened the Smaj’s corporate worship and monotheism VI. Keshub Chunder Sen used revivalist sermons and Brahmo missionaries to spread a gospel which became so close to Christianity in its content that his conversion was thought imminent VII. Swami Dayananda based his radical social reforms on the authority of the Vedas

123. Sri Ramakrishna (1836-1886) Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902)

124. I. Ramakrishna was a simple soul, follower of Kali II. Became a religious seeker, tried being Christian, Muslim, and Hindu III. Soon he revitalized Hinduism IV. His disciple, Vivekananda, attended the first World Parliament of Religions in 1893 and impressed the world with his abilities

125. Aurobindo Ghose (1872-1950) I. English educated, known for his desire to free India II. Became a student of religion, emphasizing the importance of Hinduism in evolving society and religion

126. Sarvepelli Radhkrishnan (1888-1975)