1. Class Activity - Research
Take out all of your writing utensils
Average/Mean for females? _____
Average/Mean for males? _____

2. The Need for Psychological Science
The biases and errors of people’s everyday judgments
illustrate the need for a scientific attitude:
A. Skepticism
Where is the evidence?
How do you REALLY know this?
B. Humility
Scientists are willing to reject their own ideas/biases, if needed.

3. The Need for Psychological Science
C. Critical Thinking
Scientists never blindly accept arguments and conclusions
Four elements
examine assumptions
discerns hidden values
evaluates evidence
assess conclusions

4. Trepanation
Chipping away a hole in the skull to let out evil spirits is a cure for adolescent rebellion and the thinking that leads adolescents to behave badly.
Examine Assumptions
Discern Hidden Values
Evaluate Evidence
Assess Conclusions

5. The Need for Psychological Science
Hindsight Bias
we tend to believe, after learning an outcome, that we would have foreseen it
the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon
Intuition
Describe your intuitive moment
In research, common sense (intuition) predicts what DID happen more often than what WILL happen.
Intuition is based on common sense and experience!

6. The Need for Psychological Science E:\Track01.cda
Overconfidence
we tend to think we know more than we do
Confirmation Bias
our overconfidence leads us to CONFIRM our own thoughts and ignore evidence that might disprove us (bias)
Have you ever ignored evidence that was contrary/different from what you believed?

7. The Scientific Method
Used to accomplish the four goals – a. b. c. d.

8. The Scientific Method Theory – organized set of principles
Hypothesis – testable guess derived from theory
Operational Definition
How can you measure or “operate” with these variables?
Test the hypothesis:
Girls smile more than boys.

9. The Need for Psychological Science

10. Operational Defintions
I want to study the effects of physical contact on attachment. 
I want to study the effects of sugar on attention levels. 
Watching television as a toddler leads to decreased ability to focus as an adult.
What are the variables?
How will you measure them?

11. Six steps of the Scientific Method.
a. Identify the theory
b. Form an hypothesis
c. Determine the variables
d. Design the experiment
e. Gather the data
Analyze, conclude, and report your findings
Journals, Colleagues
Magazines
g. Replicate = Valid

12. Research Methods of Psychology
Case Study
Survey
Naturalistic Observation
Correlation
Experimentation

13. Free Response 2006 Exam
Psychologists use a variety of research methods to study behavior.
Three of the main research methods used are:
* Case Study
* Correlational Study, and
* Experiment.
A. Discuss the advantage of each research method listed above.
B. Discuss one disadvantage of each research method listed above.
Pretend you are a psychologist who will use each of the three research methods – case study, correlational study, and experiment—to determine the effect of taking Vitamin J on improving memory.
C. For each method listed above, explain a key characteristic of the basic approach you could use to reach a scientific conclusion about the relationship between taking vitamin J and improving memory. You need not design a complete study.

14. Case Study
Goals Met -
Description (of the ONE person or ONE small group)
Definition: Intensive analysis and description of an individual or a small group.
Advantages: A lot of information.
A rich description.
Leads to ideas for future study.

15. Case Study Continued … Disadvantages Examples Reflection Question #3…
Observer Bias
Difficult to generalize beyond single case studied

16. Survey Method
Goals Met: Describe and Predict (if correlation determined from data)
Definition: Asking predetermined questions using an interview or a questionnaire.

17. Survey Continued … Advantages Disadvantages Lots of information
Relatively low cost
Done in a short amount of time
Respondents might not be representative (sampling bias)
Respondents might not be knowledgeable or might want to please researcher (response bias)

18. Survey Problems …. 
Response Bias – What people SAY is often very different from what the DO. (Would you admit to everything you do/think/feel?)
False Consensus – The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and opinions.

19. Types of Wording Effects
Wording Effects – The way a question is worded affects the outcome of the survey.
a. Emotionally Charged Questions
b. Limited/Biased Range of Options
c. Biased Order of the Questions
d. Subject Ignorance
Samples Provided in Class

20. Survey/Experiment Definitions
Population: Larger group you wish to generalize your findings to … the group your research will benefit.
Sample of Subjects: People you choose from the population to survey (study)
Representative Sample: (noun)
Set of subjects that represent the population (all parts … ethnicity/sex/religion/etc.)
Random Sampling: (verb/procedure)
Each person in your population has an equal chance of being selected for your study. Ensures a representative sample.
Examples and Reflection Question #4

21. Naturalistic Observation
Goals Met: Describe
Definition: Behavior is studied in its natural environment without interference from the researcher.

22. Naturalistic Observation Cont.
Advantages:
Spontaneous
Not a “lab” setting
Great ideas for future hypotheses
Disadvantages
Confirmation Bias
Researcher/Observer
Hawthorne Effect
Subject Bias
One Chance – think spontaneous moment!
Reflection Question #5

23. Jane Goodall 60+ years of Naturalistic Observations
Jane Goodall – chimps and the evolutionary value of play

24. Correlational Research Method
Goals Met: Describe and Predict
Definition: Used to clarify the strength of a relationship among variables.

25. Correlation Continued …
Examples:
What kind of correlation?
Scatter Plots and Correlation Coefficient
Dark clouds and rain
Study time and test scores
Smoking and lifespan
Consumption of hot cocoa and outside temperature
Direction
Positive – Vary together
Negative – Vary opposite
None – No relationship
Strength
-1.00 < >+1.00
+0.25
-0.99
+0.87

26. Scatterplots, showing patterns of correlations
Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)
No relationship (0.00)
Perfect negative
correlation (-1.00)
Scatterplots, showing patterns of correlations

27. Correlation Continued
Advantages
Disadvantages
Description and prediction are possible.
Absolutely NO causality.
Ice Cream Sales and Murder Rates
Cannot explain why a relationship exists, only that there is one.
Illusory Correlation
(perception of correlation where none exists)
Perceive a Patterns
(Idaho drivers)
Perceive a Random Event
(shootings)
Fail to notice a Third Variable
(pallegra)
No Cause/Cannot Explain

28. Multi-Method Approach (Eclectic)
You follow a case study closely
You notice (as part of some naturalistic observations) a correlation
You survey a similar set of subjects from the population
You find a definite mathematical correlation
You experiment to prove cause and effect

29. Experimental Method Usually the last step in the research process.
May include other methods along the way.
Goals Met: Explain!!
Definition: The investigator manipulates one or more factors called the independent variable to observe its effect on some behavior or mental process called the dependent variable while controlling other, relevant factors called confounding variables.

30. Definitions Experimentation
Independent Variable (IV):
The controlled or manipulated variable. The “thing” that is given or not given to the subjects. The variable whose effect is being studied.
Dependent Variable (DV):
The effect (behavior or mental process) being observed that is caused by the IV. The variable that may change in response to the IV.
Hypothesis and Operational Definition (see previous)
Experimental Group (EG):
Manipulated group
Receives the treatment
Receives the IV
Control Group (CG):
Comparison Group
Does not receive the IV
May receive a placebo (looks like IV, but is not have the same effect)

31. Experimentation Continued …
Random Sampling (verb)
Get sample that represents (noun) the population
Every KIND of person should be represented in your sample.
Biased Sample
Does not represent the population/can’t generalize
Eliminate Researcher Bias/Subject Bias
Blind – one doesn’t know
Double-Blind – both don’t know
Random Assignment
(another verb)
Randomly assign subjects to CG and EG – to make both groups representative.

32. Experimentation Continued
Example – Reflection Sheet
Population IV DV CG EG

33. Experimentation Continued …
Advantages
Disadvantages
Conclusions can be drawn about causation
Explanations are given for behaviors and mental processes
Cause and effect
Ethical considerations – any time you experiment with humans/animals
Behavior constricted to a laboratory (not always natural/realistic)
Observer Bias/Hawthorne Effect
Use blind/double blind procedure to eliminate

34. Ethical Guidelines - APA
Informed consent
Subject can withdraw at any time
Information provided for how to contact researcher after
Confidentiality
Explain any misconceptions at the earliest possible time (without creating bias)
If deception occurs, must remove misconceptions at the end
Those working with animals/humans must be trained
Great lengths must be taken to minimize all animal/human discomfort