1. Module 15
Motivation

2. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
refers to the various physiological and psychological factors that cause us to act in a specific way at a particular time
Instincts
innate tendencies or biological forces that determine behavior
Fixed action pattern
innate biological force that predisposes an organism to behave in a fixed way in the presence of a specific environmental condition

3. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION (CONT.)
Brain: reward/pleasure center
includes several areas of the brain, such as the nucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmental area, and involves several neurotransmitters, especially dopamine
makes up a neural circuitry that produces rewarding and pleasurable feelings

4. p330 REWARD PLESURE CENTER

5. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION (CONT.)
Incentives
goals, that can be either objects or thoughts, that we learn to value and that we are motivated to obtain
incentives have two common features
first: can be thoughts
second: can be objects

6. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION (CONT.)
Cognitive factors
Extrinsic motivation
involves engaging in certain activities or behaviors that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain incentives or external rewards
Intrinsic motivation
involves engaging in certain activities or behaviors because the behaviors themselves are personally rewarding or because engaging in these activities fulfills our beliefs or expectations

7. BIOLOGICAL & SOCIAL NEEDS
Biological needs
physiological requirements that are critical to our survival and physical well-being
Social needs
needs that are acquired through learning and experience
Satisfying needs
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
ascending order, or hierarchy, in which biological needs are placed at the bottom and social needs at the top

8. p333 MASLOW HIERARCHY NEEDS

9. HUNGER
Optimal weight
ideal weight results from an almost perfect balance between how much food an organism eats and how much it needs to meet its body’s energy needs
calorie
a measure of how much energy food contains
Overweight
means that a person is 20% over the ideal body weight
obesity
means that a person is 30% or more above the ideal body weight

10. HUNGER (CONT.) Three hunger factors Biological hunger factors
come from physiological changes in blood chemistry and signals from digestive organs that provide feedback to the brain, which in turn, triggers us to eat or stop eating

11. HUNGER (CONT.) Three hunger factors
instructions determine the number of fat cells or metabolic rates of burning off the body’s fuel, which push us toward being normal, overweight, or underweight
Biological hunger factors
peripheral cues
come from changes in blood chemistry or signals from digestive organs, which secrete various hormones

12. HUNGER (CONT.) Genetic hunger factors
come from inherited instructions found in our genes
determine the number of fat cells or metabolic rates of burning off the body’s fuel, which push us toward being normal, overweight, or underweight
Psychosocial hunger factors
Come from learned associations between food and other stimuli, such as snacking while watching television, sociocultural influences, such as depression, dislike of body image, or low self-esteem

13. HUNGER (CONT.) Three hunger factors central cues
result from activity in different brain areas, which in turn result in increasing or decreasing appetite

14. HUNGER (CONT.) Psychosocial hunger factors personality traits
may be at great risk for overeating as well as developing serious eating disorders, such as overeating when stressed or depressed, going on food binges (bulimia nervosa), or starving oneself (anorexia nervosa)

15. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR Genetic sex factors
include inherited instructions for the development of sexual organs, the secretion of sex hormones, and the wiring of the neural circuits that control sexual reflexes
Biological sex factors
include the action of sex hormones, which are involved in secondary sexual characteristics (facial hair, breasts), sexual development of ova and sperm

16. p338 SPERM AND EGG

17. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)
Genetic influences on sexual behavior
sex chromosome
sperm or the egg
contain 23 chromosomes (contain instructions for determining the sex of the child)
egg contains the X chromosome
sperm’s chromosome can either be X (female) or Y (male)
XY means male development
XX means female development
fertilized egg is called a zygote

18. p338 MALE AND FEMALE

19. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)
Genetic influences on sexual behavior
differentiation
male sex organ and male brain
5th week after conception, the testes begin to grow and produce male hormones called androgens
most familiar is testosterone
triggers development of male sexual organ
programs the hypothalamus so at puberty it triggers the pituitary gland to secrete hormones on a continuous basis

20. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)
Genetic influences on sexual behavior
differentiation
female sex organs and female brain
absence of testosterone in the developing embryo means automatic development of female sexual organs
hypothalamus keeps female program

21. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)
Psychological influences on sexual behavior
Psychological sex factors
play a role in developing a sexual or gender identity, gender role, and sexual orientation
Gender identity
refers to the individual’s subjective experience and feelings of being either a male or female

22. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)
Psychological influences on sexual behavior
Gender identity disorder
commonly referred to as transsexulaism
a person who has a strong and persistent desire to be the other sex, is uncomfortable about being one’s assigned sex, and may wish to live as a member of the other sex
Gender roles
refer to the traditional or stereotypic behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that society designates as masculine or feminine

23. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)
Psychological influences on sexual behavior
Sexual orientation
refers to whether a person is sexually aroused primarily by members of his or her own sex, the opposite sex, or both
Homosexual orientation
pattern of sexual arousal by persons of same sexes
Bisexual orientation
pattern of sexual arousal by persons of both sexes
Heterosexual orientation
pattern of sexual arousal by persons of the opposite sex

24. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)
Sexual responses, problems, and treatments
Paraphilias
sexual deviations, characterized by repetitive or preferred sexual fantasies involving nonhuman objects, such as sexual attraction to particular articles of clothing (shoes, underclothes)
Sexual dysfunction
problems of sexual arousal or orgasm that interfere with adequate functioning during sexual intercourse

25. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)
Sexual responses, problems, and treatments
Organic factors
medical conditions or drug or medication problems that lead to sexual difficulties
Psychological factors
performance anxiety, sexual trauma, guilt, or failure to communicate

26. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)
Sexual responses, problems, and treatments
Premature or rapid ejaculation
persistent or recurrent absence of voluntary control over ejaculation,
male ejaculates with minimal sexual stimulation before, upon, or shortly after penetration and before he wishes to
Inhibited female orgasm
persistent delay or absence of orgasm after becoming aroused and excited

27. SEXUAL BEHAVIOR (CONT.)
AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
HIV positive
presence of HIV antibodies, which means that the individual has been infected by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) life threatening condition that is present when the individual is HIV positive and has a level of T-cells or has developed one or more of 26 specified illnesses (pneumonia, skin cancer)

28. ACHIEVEMENT Need for achievement
refers to the desire to set challenging goals and to persist in pursuing those goals in the face of obstacles, frustrations, and setbacks
Thematic Apperception Test
TAT, personality test in which subjects are asked to look at pictures of people in ambiguous situations and to make up stories about what the characters are thinking and feeling and what the outcome will be

29. ACHIEVEMENT (CONT.) Need for achievement High need for achievement
shown by those who persist longer at tasks; perform better on tasks, activities, or exams; set challenging but realistic goals; compete with others to win; and are attracted to careers that require initiative
Fear of failure
shown by people who are motivated to avoid failure by choosing easy, nonchallenging tasks where failure is more unlikely to occur

30. ACHIEVEMENT (CONT.) Need for achievement Fear of failure
Self-handicapping
refers to doing things that contribute to failure and then using these very things, knowingly or unknowingly, as excuses for failing to achieve some goal
Underachievement
underachievers are individuals who score relatively high on tests of ability or intelligence but perform more poorly than their scores would predict

31. ACHIEVEMENT (CONT.) Cognitive influences
Cognitive factors in motivation
refer to how people evaluate or perceive a situation and how these evaluations and perceptions influence their willingness to work
Intrinsic motivation
involves engaging in certain activities or behaviors without receiving any external rewards because engaging in these activities fulfills our beliefs or expectations

32. ACHIEVEMENT (CONT.) Cognitive influences
Cognitive factors in motivation
Extrinsic motivation
involves engaging in certain activities or behaviors that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain incentives and external rewards