1. Exploring Management
Chapter 13
Motivation

2. Chapter 13 How do human needs influence motivation to work?
How do thought processes and decisions affect motivation to work?
How does reinforcement influence motivation to work?

3. 13.1 Human Needs and Job Design
Maslow described a hierarchy of needs topped by self-actualization
Alderfer’s ERG theory deals with existence, relatedness and growth needs
McClelland identified acquired needs for achievement, power and affiliation
Herzberg’s two-factor theory focuses on higher-order need satisfaction
The core characteristics model integrates motivation and job design

4. HUMAN NEEDS Maslow’s Hierarchy
Motivation – level, direction and persistence of effort expended at work
Maslow’s hierarchy
Needs
Unfulfilled desires that stimulate people to act
Lower order needs
Physiological, safety and social needs
Higher order needs
Esteem and self-actualization
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs seems to indicate that higher level needs cannot be satisfied until lower needs are satisfied. This may be true. However, it is very likely that people move up and down Maslow’s scale during their life. Just because you are safe today, does not mean that you will be safe tomorrow. Many who lost their jobs in the recent economic crises discovered this the hard way.

5. HUMAN NEEDS Maslow’s Hierarchy
Employers have many options to motivate employees at every level. The trick is to understand the individuals well enough to know how they are motivated.

6. HUMAN NEEDS Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Existence Needs
are desires for physiological and material well-being. Relatedness needs are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.
Relatedness Needs
are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships.
Growth Needs
are desires for continued psychological growth and development.
Alderfer’s ERG theory can be thought of as a short form version of Maslow’s hierarchy. Alderfer claimed that these needs exist, in various degrees, simultaneously.

7. HUMAN NEEDS McClelland’s Acquired Needs
Three acquired needs that vary in strength among people
Need for Achievement
is the desire to do something better, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks.
Need for Power
is the desire to control, influence, or be responsible for other people.
Need for Affiliation
Is the desire to establish and maintain good relations with other people.
Although not exactly the same, McClelland’s acquired needs are similar to Alderfer’s ERG theory needs.

8. HUMAN NEEDS McClelland’s Acquired Needs
Two forms of need for power
Need for personal power
Need for social power
Personal power is manipulative, social power is more socially responsible.

9. HUMAN NEEDS Herzberg Two-Factor Theory
Herzberg defined motivation as “getting others to want to do what you want them to do.” There is a big difference between getting others to do something and getting them to want to do it.

10. JOB DESIGN Core Characteristics Model
Allocation of specific tasks to individuals and groups
Job enrichment
Adds opportunities for satisfying higher-order needs to a job by adding opportunities for planning and controlling work
The basic theory behind core characteristics is that if people have a job that is interesting and rewarding, motivation will follow. Some jobs are limited in the amount of enrichment that can be added like the one pictured here.

11. JOB DESIGN Core Characteristics Model
Five Core Job Characteristics
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback from the job itself
Job enrichment attempts to build elements of all five core job characteristics in each job.

12. JOB DESIGN Core Characteristics Model
Job enrichment attempts to build elements of all five core job characteristics in each job.

13. 13.2 Thought Processes and Decisions
Equity theory explains how social comparisons motivate individual behavior
Expectancy theory considers motivation = expectancy x instrumentality x valence
Goal-setting theory shows that well-chosen and well-set goals can be motivating
The following theories attempt to more closely relate individual needs to work performance.

14. THOUGHT PROCESSES Equity Theory
Equity theory explains how social comparisons can motivate individual behavior
Perceived negative inequity
Attempt to restore equity by working less or quitting
Perceived positive inequity
Attempt to restore equity by extra effort
Adams believed that humans seek equity in their personal and professional lives. If they perceive that they are not being treated fairly, they will take action to change the situation.

15. THOUGHT PROCESSES Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory considers motivation = expectancy x instrumentality x valence
Expectancy
“Can I achieve the desired level of task performance?”
Instrumentality
“What work outcomes will be received as a result of the performance?”
Valence
“How highly do I value work outcomes?”
Vroom argued that employees are motivated by their expectations regarding the magnitude of their efforts and the potential compensation that they will receive, as well as the probability of receiving the additional compensation.

16. THOUGHT PROCESSES Expectancy Theory
Valence can be tricky. Things that managers consider to be rewards may not be valuable to the employee.
This chart suggests how Vroom’s expectancy theory might be applied.

17. THOUGHT PROCESSES Goal Setting Theory
Goal-setting theory shows that well-chosen and well-set goals can be motivating
Remember that, although goals should be challenging, they must be achievable. Employees will not pursue unrealistic goals for very long.

18. Punishment connects undesirable behavior with unpleasant consequences
13.3 Reinforcement
Operant conditioning influences behavior by controlling its consequences
Positive reinforcement connects desirable behavior with pleasant consequences
Punishment connects undesirable behavior with unpleasant consequences
Reinforcement theory addresses how to get employees to do what you want them to do. This is not the same definition put forth by Herzberg which is getting employees to want to do what you want them to do.

19. REINFORCEMENT Law of Effect
The law of effect states that behavior followed by a pleasant consequence is likely to be repeated; behavior followed by an unpleasant consequence is unlikely to be repeated.
In the workplace, consequences are used to reinforce behaviors that are desired such as safety, productivity, positive attitude and professionalism. Often the consequences are administered by a work group to maintain the culture.

20. REINFORCEMENT Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning – B. F. Skinner
Influences behavior by controlling its consequences.
Behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated
Behavior that receives an unpleasant consequence probably won’t be repeated.
Positive reinforcement may be as simple as saying “Good Job”. Negative reinforcement might be demonstrated when a manager stops nagging about a behavior when the employee stops doing it.

21. REINFORCEMENT Positive Reinforcement
Strengthens positive behavior
Approval
Recognition
Rewards
Rewards must be administered only for the correct behavior and within a reasonable time frame.

22. REINFORCEMENT Negative Reinforcement
Unpleasant consequence is avoided if desirable behavior is exhibited
Extinction
Desired consequence is removed if undesirable behavior is exhibited
Punishment
Discourages a behavior by making an unpleasant consequence contingent on its occurrence
Rewards must be administered only for the correct behavior and within a reasonable time frame.

23. REINFORCEMENT Operant Conditioning
Here is an example of how reinforcement theory might be applied in a production environment. Notice the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment.

24. REINFORCEMENT Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement connects desirable behavior with pleasant consequences
Law of contingent reinforcement
Reward only when desirable behavior is demonstrated
Law of immediate reinforcement
Reward immediately after the desirable behavior is demonstrated
Rewards must be administered only for the correct behavior and within a reasonable time frame.

25. REINFORCEMENT Positive Reinforcement
Shaping
Creating a new behavior by positive reinforcement of similar behaviors
Continuous reinforcement
Reward every time behavior is exhibited
Intermittent reinforcement
Reward behavior periodically
Continuous reinforcement is less confusing than intermittent reinforcement and the desired behavior is learned more quickly.

26. REINFORCEMENT Punishment
Connects undesirable behavior with unpleasant consequences
Deny a reward
No raise/pay reduction
Reprimand
Punishment must be appropriate for the behavior.