1. THE GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH
CHAPTER 3

2. WHAT IS “GRAMMAR”? Different meanings:
ETYMOLOGICALLY LINKED TO “WRITTEN LETTERS”, BUT GRADUALLY HAS ACQUIRED A WIDER MEANING
IMPLICIT KNOWLEDGE OF HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE OF HOW LANGUAGE WORKS
THE RULES FOR THE PRODUCTION OF CORRECT LANGUAGE
DIFFERENT TYPES OF GRAMMAR: PEDAGOGICAL/NORMATIVE, DESCRIPTIVE, THEORETICAL (e.g. Halliday’s systemic grammar)

3. WHAT IS “GRAMMAR” MADE OF?
Grammar= language
Phonology
Morphology
Word-formation
Syntax
Lexis and phraseology
Semantics
Text and discourse
Punctuation
The central core of grammar=
morphology
inflectional (and derivational, see Chapter 4)
syntax

4. MORPHOLOGY
THE STUDY OF THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF WORDS
e.g. the plural –s inflection for nouns and the –ed inflection for verbs

5. SYNTAX THE WAY IN WHICH WORDS COMBINE TO FORM LARGER UNITS OF MEANING
e.g. phrases, clauses, sentences
Example: word order in a noun phrase or in statements and questions
e.g. She is a beautiful girl
NOT She is a girl beautiful

6. IN PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH…
limited presence of inflectional morphology compared to Old English (and other languages such as Italian or German)
and
greater importance of syntax and word order in signalling grammatical relations

7. GRAMMATICAL UNITS TEXT SENTENCE (frase complessa)
CLAUSE (frase semplice
/principale o subordinata)
PHRASE ( *not frase but
sintagma/gruppo)
WORD
MORPHEME

8. What is a MORPHEME? Unhappy un-happy Cats cat-s Lexical e.g. pen, book
A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning or grammatical function
Lexical e.g. pen, book
Functional or grammatical e.g. if, the
free: can stand alone as a word e.g. basket, woman
bound: cannot stand alone and must be linked to another morpheme (called base or root) e.g. -ly, un-, -able, -ee

9. MORPHEMES and MORPHS WORDS MORPHS MORPHEMES (concrete) (abstract)
Played play-ed PLAY+ past
Unhelpful un-help-ful negative+HELP+ adjective
WORDS MORPHS MORPHEMES
(concrete) (abstract)

10. ALLOMORPHS
-ed
the morph that indicates past tense can be realised phonetically in different ways (allomorphs) depending on the phonological context:
e.g. Raised [d]
looked [t]
decided [Id]

11. TWO BRANCHES OF MORPHOLOGY
INFLECTIONAL : DEALS WITH CHANGES THAT HAVE GRAMMATICAL MEANING
e.g. –est signalling the superlative of adjectives
DERIVATIONAL: DEALS WITH THE PROCESS OF NEW WORD FORMATION
e.g. un-happ(y)i-ness (see Chapter 4)

12. Mary’s brother-in-law lost his identity card during the week-end
WHAT IS A WORD?
Mary’s brother-in-law lost his identity card during the week-end
How many words are there in this clause?

13. HOW MANY ‘WORDS’ ARE THERE IN THIS SENTENCE?
I asked him to list all his books, but instead of listing them all, he listed only his favourite book
20 or 14 or a number in between?

14. IT DEPENDS ON THE CRITERIA OF “WORDHOOD” USED
Phonological : a word is preceded and followed by pauses
Orthographic : a word is preceded and followed by spaces or punctuation marks
Prosodic : a word takes one main stress
Internal integrity : a word is an indivisible unit
Semantic : a word has a single meaning

15. Word/word forms/lexemes
List/listing/listed = 3 word forms of the LEXEME TO LIST
Book/books = 2 word forms of the LEXEME BOOK
He/him = two word forms of the LEXEME HE

16. WORDS IN DICTIONARIES
ENTRY: an independent lexical unit in alphabetical order
HEADWORD: the main word of the entry
LEMMA: the canonical form, e.g. the singular for nouns

17. Words are traditionally grouped into
WORD CLASSES OR
PARTS OF SPEECH

18. HOW MANY AND WHAT ARE THEY?
NOUNS
VERBS ( LEXICAL vs. AUXILIARY VERBS)
ADJECTIVES
ADVERBS
ARTICLES or DETERMINERS
PRONOUNS
CONJUNCTIONS
PREPOSITIONS
INTERJECTIONS/INSERTS e.g. oh, yes, right

19. OPEN AND CLOSED CLASSES
open-class words  lexical or content words: wide and open membership; mixed etymological origin ; 4 classes: nouns, (lexical) verbs, adjectives, adverbs
closed-class words  grammatical or function words: limited membership and high frequency of use; short; usually of Germanic origin; 5 classes: pronouns, determiners, auxiliaries, prepositions, conjunctions

20. MULTIPLE CLASS MEMBERSHIP
the same word form may belong to more than one word class
e.g. fast (adj.), fast (adv.), fast (n.)
park (n.), to park (v.)
can (n.), can (aux.)
only the co-text, i.e. the surroundings of the word, allows the reader/listener to understand the difference
word stress helps disambiguation
e.g. rebel (n.) [], rebel (v.) []

21. NOUNS Open class with a naming function
common (city, house) or proper (London, Mary, the White House)
Concrete (bread) or abstract (love)
Countable (book/books) and uncountable or mass (milk, furniture, information)
may take the ‘s genitive case (genitivo sassone)

22. VERBS: lexical and auxiliary verbs
open class denoting actions or states
lexical /main / full verbs e.g. I like English
He walked to school
auxiliary verbs (or auxiliaries) are added to lexical verbs for various purposes
e.g. I could go faster. (modality)
John is going nowhere. (progressive aspect)
Do you go to school? (question)
I do love him! (emphasis)

23. LEXICAL VERBS
dynamic: referring to physical processes= allow the progressive form
e.g. to play, to walk, to drink
Stative/state : referring to states and conditions = do not allow the progressive form
e.g. to know, to love, to believe
Some can be both , e.g. to feel

24. ADJECTIVES Open-class with a descriptive function
attributive function, before a noun
e.g. the extraordinary boy
predicative function, after copular verbs (to be, to seem, to appear) e.g. John is tall
some adjectives are only used in either attributive or predicative function
e.g. the child is afraid (predicative)
*the afraid child but the freightened child
e.g. the main task (attributive)
*the task is main but the task is crucial /
important

25. GRADABILITY OF ADJECTIVES
most adjectives are gradable
it is possible to indicate to what extent the quality referred to by an adjective applies by using intensifiers
e.g. lucky
very lucky extremely lucky
some adjectives are not gradable
e.g huge *extremely huge
unique *very unique

26. ADVERBS A very heterogeneous class
Fortunately, today the dog has eaten his food very quietly outside
comment when how / how /where
…provide information about how, when, and where
…allow the speaker to comment on the whole utterance
…express degree with adjectives or other adverbs

27. Subclasses of adverbs
Circumstance adverbs or adjuncts: give additional information about an element of the sentence
e.g. The surgeon completed the operation carefully
Stance adverbs or disjuncts: provide a comment on the sentence
e.g. Frankly, I should have told her what happened
Linking adverbs or conjuncts: connect one sentence or part of a sentence to another
e.g. She wasn’t free to go to New York at Christmas and besides she couldn’t afford it.

28. CONJUNCTIONS … join linguistic elements
coordinating conjunctions, or coordinators
e.g. and, but, or
subordinating conjunctions, or subordinators
- simple, e.g. because, although, when
- complex, e.g. as far as, in order to

29. PREPOSITIONS show the relationship between two items
typically followed by a noun phrase with which they form a Prepositional Phrase (PP)
e.g. the dog ran under the table
simple: single word
e.g. under, over, at, on
complex: more than one word
according to, on behalf of, with regard to

30. DETERMINERS
Function words used before a noun to indicate definiteness or indefiniteness, quantity, possession
e.g. all these sugary cookies filled with jam and cream
The main subclasses are :
Articles (indefinite and definite): a, an, the
demonstratives: this, that, these, those
possessives: my, your, his, her, their, our, its etc.
quantifiers: all, few, many, several, some, every, each, any, etc.
cardinal numbers: one, two, fifty, etc.
ordinal numbers: first, second, third, etc.

31. PRONOUNS
closed class of words which replace words thus avoiding repetitions
e.g. Michelle was offered an exciting new job and she decided to take it
Main subclasses :
personal pronouns
e.g. They love football (subject) She loves them (object)
possessive pronouns
e.g. This book is mine
Demonstrative pronouns
e.g. This is my friend Tom
reflexive pronouns
e.g. She hurt herself
interrogative pronouns
e.g. Whose car is this?
relative pronouns
e.g. This is the car which/that I want to buy

32. AUXILIARIES A closed class of verbs which accompany lexical verbs
Two subclasses:
primary auxiliaries
have, be, do
e.g. Liz is looking for a job, Do you speak English? She has studied a lot
modal auxiliaries (modality)
can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must,
e.g. I must go now! Would you like a cup of coffee?

33. WH-WORDS
A frequently used expression to refer to function words beginning with wh-:
adverbs (interrogative, relative, exclamative)
e.g. When did you call her?
pronouns (interrogative, relative, exclamative)
e.g. Whose car is that?
determiners (interrogative, relative, exclamative)
e.g. Which book did you choose?

34. NUMERALS cardinal, e.g. one, two, three, etc.
ordinal, e.g. first, second, third, etc.
numerals may function as nouns
e.g. The Magnificent Seven

35. PDE REGULAR INFLECTIONS
NOUNS s plural,
NOUNS ’s possessive or genitive
case
VERBS s 3rd pers. sing.
VERBS ed past tense,
VERBS ed past participle
VERBS ing -ing form, gerund
ADJECTIVES -er comparative
ADJECTIVES -est superlative

36. NUMBER in English NOUNS
Most nouns add -s e.g. girls, toys, cars
some nouns add -es e.g. tomatoes, branches, knives
the pronunciation of the inflectional ending -s/-es depends on the phonetic context, i.e. there are three allomorphs of the plural morpheme -s
e.g. cakes = /s/ (preceded by the voiceless consonant /k/)
beans = /z/ (preceded by the voiced consonant /n/)
judges= /iz/
some nouns have irregular plural endings
e.g. children, teeth, mice, oxen, curricula, sheep (see p. 131)
uncountable nouns:
e.g. evidence, advice, equipment, information

37. POSSESSIVE CASE IN ENGLISH NOUNS The ‘s genitive versus the of-form
POSSESSIVE CASE IN ENGLISH NOUNS The ‘s genitive versus the of-form. Synthetic versus analytic option
SAY WHETHER THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES ARE ALL ACCEPTABLE AND DISCUSS THE RULE OF THE ‘s GENITIVE versus THE “OF FORM”
John’s car is fast
the car of John is fast
the students’ protest is still going on
the protest of the students is still going on
the car of the friend who is visiting me was stolen last night
The friend who is visiting me’s car was stolen last night
yesterday’s newspaper
the newspaper of yesterday
the journey’s end
The end of the journey
The legs of the table
the table’s legs

38. ‘S or of GENITIVE John’s car is fast NO the car of John is fast
the students’ protest is still going on
the protest of the students is still going on
the car of the friend who is visiting me was stolen last night
NO The friend who is visiting me’s car was stolen last night
yesterday’s newspaper
NO the newspaper of yesterday
the journey’s end
The end of the journey
The legs of the table
NO the table’s legs

39. VERB INFLECTIONS
MOST ENGLISH VERBS ARE REGULAR AND HAVE A PARADIGM OF 5 WORD FORMS and 4 VERB INFLECTIONS
e.g. Love/loves/loved/loved/loving
THERE IS A SMALLER NUMBER OF VERY FREQUENTLY USED IRREGULAR VERBS
e.g. put, put, put
lose, lost, lost
take, took, taken
speak, spoke, spoken
go, went, gone
AUXILIARIES ARE VERY IRREGULAR, e.g. The verb to be has forms that differ from one another , e.g. am, are, is, was, were, been ( PROCESS OF SUPPLETION)
MOST MODAL VERBS DO NOT INFLECT AND HAVE ONLY TWO FORMS, e.g. may, might, can, could

40. GRADABILITY OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
Synthetic comparison:
-er ending (comparative) e.g. warmer
-est ending (superlative) e.g. finest
versus
phraseological/analytic comparison (for polysyllabic words)
more and most e.g. more/ most interesting
more quickly
irregular comparison (process of suppletion)
e.g. good better best; little, less, least; much, more, most;
well, better, best; bad, worse, worst

41. PRONOUN INFLECTION
Pronouns, and personal pronouns in particular, have retained a certain degree of inflection in PDE.
e.g. personal pronouns express NUMBER, GENDER and CASE often through suppletive forms
I-me; we-us, you-you, he-him, she-her, it-it, they-them

42. PHRASE ( SINTAGMA/GRUPPO)
a unit of syntax made up of one or more words
it contains an obligatory head and optional modifiers
The black labrador (NP) was chewing (VP) a juicy bone (NP) very noisily (AdvP)

43. TYPES OF PHRASES NOUN PHRASE (NP) my friend Paul / Tom
VERB PHRASE (VP) is/ is laughing
ADJECTIVE PHRASE (AdjP) very tall/ absolutely brilliant
ADVERB PHRASE (AdvP) quietly, never
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (PP) in the garden/ on Monday
except for prepositional phrases (PP) phrases can be constituted by a single lexical item
all phrases can be extended by pre-modification or post-modification

44. TYPES OF NOUN PHRASES determiner pre-modifier HEAD post-modifier -
John my
leather (n.)
suitcase a
large, old, blue
(size, age, colour)
with wheels

45. MORE NOUN PHRASES det. pre-modifier HEAD post-modifier The London
experience -
London’s
churches
I know

46. AMBIGUITY in NPs The French history teacher
the (det.) French (pre-mod.) history (pre-mod.) teacher (head)
[the] [French] [history teacher]
(the teacher of history is French)
[the] [French history] [teacher]
(the teacher teaches French history)

47. The French history teacher
tree diagram The French history teacher : the teacher of history is French NP
det Pre-mod.:Adj head:NP
mod:N + head :N
The French history teacher

48. The French history teacher
tree diagram The French history teacher = the teacher teaches French history NP
det Pre-mod.:NP Head:N
Pre-mod:Adj. Head:N
The French history teacher

49. COMPLEX POST-MODIFICATION
The proposal for a new building which the committee put forward last week
-for a new building (PP)
-which the committee put forward last week (relative clause)

50. TREE DIAGRAM “An interesting government report about air pollution”NP
Det. Mod.(adj.) Mod.(N.) Head:N Post-Mod:PP
Head:Prep C :NP
Mod.:N Head:N
An interesting government report about air pollution

51. FREQUENCY OF NPs IN ENGLISH
PRE-MODIFICATION IS MORE COMMON THAN POST-MODIFICATION IN ALL REGISTERS
COMPLEX PRE- AND POST-MODIFICATION IS TYPICAL OF SOME REGISTERS SUCH AS WRITTEN ACADEMIC PROSE AND NEWSPAPER HEADLINES

52. ENGLISH/ITALIAN NPs Il Dipartimento di Polizia di Los Angeles
Translate these noun phrases into Italian and notice the differences between the two languages
1. The Los Angeles Police Department
Il Dipartimento di Polizia di Los Angeles
2. Air pollution
L’inquinamento dell’aria/atmosferico
3. The Birmingham train
Il treno per/da /di (?) Birmingham
4. The proposal of a national curriculum
La proposta di un curricolo nazionale
5. The country’s leading expert on youth culture
Il maggior esperto del paese sulla cultura giovanile /Il maggior esperto di cultura giovanile del paese

53. Italian versus English NPs
English favours premodification (to the left of the head). NPs are concise and at times ambiguous
Italian favours postmodification (to the right of the head) and the use of prepositional phrases. NPs are longer and more explicit

54. VERB PHRASEs : finite/ non-finite
finite verbs or VPs: marked by tense
e.g. John plays the guitar
I enjoyed the concert
non-finite verbs or VPs: not marked by tense, person or number
e.g. To arrive on time was their objective
She traveled accompanied by her father
She broke her leg while skiing

55. VERB PHRASES: TENSE versus TIME
TENSE: property allowing the verb to differentiate between present and past TIME
e.g. Jane likes music / Jane liked music
Unlike in Italian, there is no morphologically marked form to express future time in English (but a range of forms such as will/shall+ infinitive, going to, simple present, present progressive etc. see )

56. VERB PHRASE : ASPECT
Property allowing the verb to give information about the state or the action
Progressive ( or continuous) : the action is in progress at the time of utterance
Sarah is helping her sister
perfect: the action is complete, that is it occurred at an earlier time and continues to the time of utterance or is relevant to it
Sarah has helped her sister when she was in her teens
perfect+progressive: ( often called ‘duration form’) stresses
continuity in the past and includes the time of utterance
Sarah has been helping her sister since she was 12

57. Translate into Italian and identify the main differences between the two languages
Sarah helps her sister every Thursday
Sara aiuta sua sorella tutti i giovedì
Lately Sarah is helping her sister a lot
Ultimamente Sara sta aiutando/aiuta molto sua sorella
Sarah has helped her sister to recover from her illness
Sara ha aiutato sua sorella a riprendersi dalla malattia
Sarah helped her sister one year ago when she was ill
Sara ha aiutato/aiutò sua sorella un anno fa quando era malata
Sarah has been helping her sister since last May
Sara sta aiutando/aiuta/sua sorella dal maggio scorso.

58. Translate from Italian into English
Sono andata a Londra molte volte
I have been to London several times
Vivo a Londra
I live in London
Vado a Londra ogni anno
I go to London every year
Vivo a Londra da 5 anni e continua a piacermi molto
I have been living in London for 5 years and I still enjoy it a lot
Ho vissuto a Londra per 5 anni prima di tornare in Italia
I lived in London for 5 years before coming back to Italy
Vivevo a Londra quando ho incontrato John
I was living in London when I met John

59. VERB PHRASE : VOICE The singer performed the song
The song was performed by the singer
NP1+VP+ NP2  NP2 +be+VPed+ by+NP1
The singer was performing the song
The song was being performed by the singer

60. FUNCTIONS OF THE PASSIVE
the agent is unknown or irrelevant
Mr Constable has been murdered
the focus is on the process to convey objectivity, especially in academic prose
The results of the tests have been checked several times
to disclaim responsibility
He is said to be a womanizer
More frequent in scientific writing and in the Press

61. MODAL VERBS AND MODALITY
MODALS ARE FREQUENTLY USED IN ENGLISH AND BELONG TO THE GERMANIC CORE OF THE LANGUAGE.
THEY EXPRESS A WIDE RANGE OF MEANINGS referring either to actions controlled by humans ( DEONTIC MODALITY) or to the levels of certainty of an event (EPISTEMIC MODALITY). The same modals can express different meanings. The same meanings can be expressed in different ways.

62. THE MAIN MEANINGS OF MODAL VERBS
PERMISSION e.g. Can I go to the loo? Could I borrow your notes? (Am I allowed to ask a question?)
ABILITY e.g. I can ski, (I know how to do it)
POSSIBILITY e.g. She may be ill . She might be ill (Perhaps she is ill)
OBLIGATION e.g. You must stop talking. You should pay attention, You have to do it. This needs to be done
LOGICAL NECESSITY e.g. She must be ill (She is very likely to be ill)
VOLITION e.g. I’ll do it for you
PREDICTION e.g. It will rain tomorrow

63. WHAT ABOUT MODAL VERBS IN ITALIAN?
Translate the following expressions into English:
Devi smettere di fumare
You must stop smoking
Dovresti smettere di fumare
You should stop smoking
Posso fumare?
Can I smoke ? May I smoke?
Potrei fumare?
Could I smoke? Might I smoke?
Domani può piovere
It may rain tomorrow
Domani potrebbe piovere
It might rain tomorrow
Domani pioverà
It will rain tomorrow
Sa sciare molto bene
She can ski very well
Sapeva sciare bene quando era giovane
She could /was able to /ski very well when she was young
In Italian there are the verbs potere, sapere e dovere
Some modal expressions are expressed in Italian through the conditional mood or the future tense, which do not exist as morphologically marked forms in English

64. OTHER PHRASES ADJECTIVE PHRASE e.g. Beautiful/ (really) beautiful
ADVERB PHRASE
e.g. Slowly/ (fairly) slowly
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
at University / at (Turin) University ( see pp )

65. Analysis of prepositional phrases
in the classroom In ( Head: prep) + the classrom (C: NP) near Rome Near ( Head: prep) + Rome (C : NP)

66. HOW CAN A CLAUSE BE ANALYSED?
First into Subject + predicate
John ( what is talked about) is English (what is said about the topic)
Then into the 5 main functional elements of the clause:
S (Subject),
V (Verb or Verb Phrase or Predicator ),
O (Object) complemento oggetto
C (Complement) predicato nominale, del soggetto o dell’oggetto
A (Adverbial) vari tipi di complementi . They are often optional.

67. WORD ORDER in PDE Translate the following clauses into English:
Seguiranno alcuni esempi
Some examples will follow
Nel capitolo 3 verrà presentata la grammatica
Grammar will be presented in Chapter 3
Giovanni parla molto bene l’italiano /l’italiano molto bene
John speaks Italian very well
Odio stirare
I hate ironing
Piove forte da molte ore
It’s been raining heavily for many hours
C’è un gatto in giardino
There is a cat in the garden
CONCLUSION:
The unmarked word order in English in SVO, while in Italian this order can vary to a certain extent
The subject is compulsory in English , and not in Italian. If there is no subject, a ‘dummy’ (empty) subject will be used (it/there).

68. THE VERB
…IS THE CENTRAL PART OF THE CLAUSE SINCE IT DETERMINES THE OTHER ELEMENTS ( e.g. verb complementation or valency)
She was laughing one-place verb
She was playing the piano two-place verb
She was very beautiful two-place verb
She gave him a kiss three-place verb
She made him happy three-place verb

69. CLAUSE ELEMENTS S V O C A He (NP) put (VP) the keys (NP) in his bag
The black labrador (NP)
has bitten (VP)
Mr Allington (NP)
He (NP)
put (VP)
the keys
(NP)
in his bag
(AdvP)
Sue (NP)
is feeling (VP)
very sleepy (AdjP)

70. S V O C A It (dummy subject) is going to rain (VP) Armstrong (NP)
became (VP)
the first man on the moon (NP)
Chris (NP)
made (VP)
Sara (NP)
really angry (AdjP)
yesterday (AdvP)
What I don’t understand (clause)
is (VP)
Why you lied to me
( clause)

71. S+V+Oi+Od S V Oi (Indirect Object) Od (Direct Object) a kiss
She
gave me
a kiss
her sister
a glass of wine
to her sister

72. the black labrador was barking
SV (intransitive verb). No complementation The black labrador was barking
clause
S:NP P:VP
det. mod.(adj.) head (n.) aux. head (v.)
the black labrador was barking

73. SVOd (monotransitive) Andrew bought a sports car
clause
S:NP P:VP
V Od:NP
head (n.) head (v.) det. mod. (n..) head (n.)
Andrew bought a sports car

74. SVOd (monotransitive) Andrew bought a sports car
clause
S:NP P:VP
V Od:NP
head (n.) head (v.) det. mod. (adj.) head (n.)
Andrew bought a sports car

75. SVA (+ an obligatory Adverbial) The taxi is waiting outside
clause
S:NP P:VP
V A:AdvP
det head (n.) aux. head (v.) head (adv.)
The taxi is waiting outside

76. SVCs (copular verb) The weather has turned very nasty
clause
S:NP P:VP
V C:AdjP
det head (n.) aux. head(v.) mod.(adv.) head(adj.)
The weather has turned very nasty

77. Copular verbs
be, feel, seem, appear, look, remain, stay, become, sound, taste
e.g. I am / feel rather tired (C: AdjP)
She became a nurse (C:NP)
You look extremely happy (C:AdjP)
Mary appeared in good health (C:PP)
That is what I mean (C: clause)

78. SVOiOd (di-transitive) Gill told her child a bedtime story
clause
S:NP P:VP
V Oi:NP Od:NP
head(n.) head(v.) det. head(n.) det. mod.(n.) h(n.)
Gill told her child a bedtime story

79. Di-transitive verbs Give, tell, bring, buy, show
e.g. John showed me (Oi) his new car (Od)
They bought him (Oi) a new racket (Od)
Tell us (Oi) the truth (Od)

80. SVOdCo (complex transitive) The judges declared Jackie the winner
clause
S:NP P:VP
V O:NP Co:NP
det. head (n.) head (v.) head(n.) det. h(n.)
The judges declared Jackie the winner

81. SVOdA Terry put the rubbish in the dustbin
clause
S:NP P:VP
V O:NP A:PP
head (n.) head(v.) det. h(n.) h (prep) C:NP
det. h(n.)
Terry put the rubbish in the dustbin

82. Adverbial
Optional elements added to the obligatory elements of the clause
Circumstance adverbial: additional information
e.g. The taxi is waiting outside
Stance adverbial: speaker’s feeling / attitude
e.g. Hopefully I will pass all my exams in June
Linking adverbial
e.g. In conclusion, all’s well that ends well.

83. Obligatory adverbial
Adverbials that are required to complete the meaning of the verb
E.g. Sally put the bread on the table (obligatory Adverbial)
vs. Sally cut the bread on the table (optional Adverbial)
Verbs: put, last, live

84. Adverbials vs. complements
John was very quiet (C)
John was in bed (A)
They are in good health (C)
They are in the garden (A)
You should stay sober (C)
You should stay here (A)
Complements describe or characterize the S (or O)
Adverbials typically express place or direction.

85. TO SUM-UP THE CLAUSE ELEMENTS : S/V/O/C/A
The baby is crying
S+V+A
The concert lasted three hours
S+V+Od
She is playing tennis
S+V+Od+A
She put the rubbish in the dustbin
S+V+Cs
She is Indian
S+V+Oi+Od
He gave her a kiss
S+V+ Od+Co
They elected her dean of the faculty

86. MAIN AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Mary had been waiting for more than an hour
Suddenly, she stood up and went out
She said that she was not feeling well because the air in the room was stuffy
She wanted to get some fresh air
a main clause always contains a finite verb and typically contains an overt subject
a subordinate clause cannot stand alone and needs to be attached to a free-standing clause
a non-finite clause is always subordinate
simple clauses consist of a clause, compound clauses consist of two coordinate clauses, complex clauses consist of a main and one or more subordinate clauses.

87. TYPES of CLAUSES TYPICAL FUNCTIONS OF CLAUSE TYPES FORM FUNCTION
declarative statement
interrogative question
imperative directive
exclamative exclamation
She’s wearing a new dress.
Is she wearing a new dress?
Buy yourself a new dress!
What a lovely dress she’s wearing!

88. DECLARATIVE CLAUSES
declarative clauses are normally used to make statements
declarative clauses typically have an overt subject, a verb element and any necessary verb complementation and may also have optional adverbials
Philip will visit his dentist in London today

89. INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES
yes-no questions: Are you happy?
wh- questions: Where do you live?
Question-tag : She’s Australian, isn’t she?
She doesn’t love him, does she?
So, you have changed your mind,
have you/haven’t you?
the interrogative structure implies a subject-operator inversion
any auxiliary which is used to make interrogative sentences is labelled operator (be, have, do)
Questions tags may have contrastive or constant polarity ( p. 166)

90. MARKED SENTENCE STRUCTURES
This book, I really liked it
EMPHASIS IN SPEECH
Terry plays jazz piano for fun.
It is Terry who plays jazz piano for fun.
It’s jazz piano that Terry plays for fun
It’s for fun that Terry plays jazz piano
It-CLEFT
I would like a book for my birthday
What I would like for my birthday is a book
WH-CLEFT
CLEFTING
to highlight a particular element of the sentence
the focussed element is introduced by a dummy Subject and followed by a relative clause

91. SENTENCE the largest unit of syntactic structure
I agreed to go with them (main clause) although I wasn’t really happy with the idea. (subordinate clause)
the largest unit of syntactic structure
a sentence must consist of at least one clause (main clause)
in writing, a sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop
in speech sentences are not always complete

92. TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
NOMINAL I just hope (that) they will understand
RELATIVE The man who is sitting next to Tom is John
ADVERBIAL Call me as soon as you get home (time) because I have to talk to you (reason) .The boy stood on the box so that he could see better (purpose). Even though I am tired (concession), I’ll do it.
4. COMPARATIVE This hotel is not so nice as I expected

93. TYPES OF RELATIVE CLAUSES
IN WHAT WAYS DO THE FOLLOWING RELATIVE CLAUSES DIFFER? WHICH RELATIVE PRONOUNS CAN BE USED IN EACH CONTEXT?
This is the best hotel (that, which, who, whom, whose, zero pronoun) I was able to find
This hotel, (which, that, who, whose, whom, zero pronoun) was renewed last year, is one of the best in the city
The man (which, that, who, whose, whom, zero pronoun) you see in the photo is my brother
The man (which, that, who, whose, whom, zero pronoun) is coming towards us is my brother
The music (that, which, who, whose, whom, zero article) we are listening to is Mozart
We stayed in a lovely hotel, (which, that, who, whom, whose) owner is a good friend of mine
We spent the night in a farm, (which, that, who, whom, whose) was very relaxing

94. Accepted options
This is the best hotel (that, which, zero pronoun) I was able to find This hotel, which was renewed last year, is one of the best in the city The man (that, who,whom, zero pronoun) you see in the photo is my brother The man (that, who) is coming towards us is my brother The music (that, which, zero article) we are listening to is Mozart We stayed in a lovely hotel, whose owner is a good friend of mine We spent the night in a farm, which was very relaxing

95. RULE OF RELATIVE CLAUSES
Relative clauses can be either defining ( or restrictive) or non-defining (non-restrictive) depending on whether they define the antecedent or add extra information. Commas are required for defining clauses.
The use of relative pronouns is conditioned by the antecedent , whether it is human ( who,whom, whose, that) or non-human ( that, whose, which), whether it plays the role of subject (who, that, which) or object (whom, that, which, zero pronoun), whether it is defining ( who, whose, whom, that, which) or non-defining (who, whose, which).
There are some fuzzy areas of usage (e.g. who/whom)

96. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES (periodo ipotetico)
1) If the weather is nice, tomorrow we will go to the seaside (it is an open possibility)
NO * If the weather will be nice, …
2) If the weather were/was nice, we would go to the seaside ( it is unlikely)
3) If the weather had been nice, we would have gone to the seaside (it did not happen)

97. Activity 1: build acceptable noun phrases filling all the boxes
determiner
pre-modifier
HEAD
post-modifier MY
BEST
FRIEND
IN TURIN
THESE
ELEGANT
FLATS
IN THE CITY CENTRE A
NEW
BOOK
ABOUT
SHAKESPEARE

98. ACTIVITY 2: Give a top-down scale of the main grammatical units with an example for each
SENTENCE Call two taxis, please, because there are ten of us
CLAUSE (main clause) Call two taxis ( subordinate clause) because there are ten of us
PHRASE Noun phrase: two taxis or Verb phrase: call
WORD taxis, call, two, please
MORPHEME taxi (free lexical morpheme) , -s (bound grammatical morpheme)

99. Last night Mary showed us a very interesting documentary
ACTIVITY 3: Give examples of declarative clauses containing the given verbs and having the patterns indicated
1. Show = A time S V Oi Od
Last night Mary showed us a very interesting documentary
2. Make = S V Od Co
You have made me very happy
3. Be /seems = S V Cs
I am Italian or This seems a good idea

100. ACTIVITY 4: Identify the clause elements in the following examples
1. I am getting really angry
I (S) am getting (V) really angry (Cs)
2. Perhaps we should invite Mary
Perhaps (A) we (S) should invite (V) Mary (Od)
It’s going to rain
It (S)’s going to rain (V)

101. The woman hit the boy with the umbrella
Use a tree diagram to show that this clause is ambiguous
The woman (S) hit (V) the boy with the umbrella (Od) Or
The woman (S) hit (V) the boy (Od) with the umbrella (A)