1. Chapter 6

2. What is Learning?
A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that we gain through experience.
How as humans do we learn?

3. Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors.
It does not consider mental processes such as thoughts, wishing, and hopes.
Behaviorism says that the principles of learning are the same for humans as well as animals.
We will discuss two types of learning: Associative & Observational.

4. Learning
Associative learning is when we make a connection, or association, between two events.
These associations are known as conditioning.
Observational learning is learning through observation and imitation of others.
There are 2 types of conditioning: Classical & Operant.
Classical conditioning is the learned association between two stimuli.
From these learned associations we learn to anticipate different events.
Ex: When we see lighting what do we expect to hear soon after?

5. Learning
In operant conditioning we learn the association between a behavior and a consequence.
This is done by reward & punishment.
Through learned associations we learn to increase behaviors that are followed by rewards and we decrease behavior followed by punishment.

6. Ivan Pavlov

7. Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who was interested in the way bodies digest food.
While doing this study (on his dog) he placed meat powder in the dog’s mouth which caused him to salivate.
He noticed by accident that the meat powder was not the only stimulus causing the dog to salivate.
Such as the food dish, the person bringing the food, or the sound of the door closing.
There are of course learned and unlearned responses of our behaviors just like Pavlov’s dog.

8. Ivan Pavlov
The unlearned part of classical conditioning include things we can not control.
These are known as reflexes, which are automatic responses to certain stimuli controlled by our nervous systems.
For instance salivation when we smell food, shivering when we are cold, or pupil construction in response to light.
The learned responses are done through associations either through associative or observational learning.

9. Pavlov’s Dog

10. Pavlov’s Dog
An unconditioned stimulus or US is a stimulus that produces a response without prior learning.
Food is the US.
An unconditioned response or UR is an unlearned reaction that happens without effort.
Drooling, salivating, in response to seeing, or smelling food
A conditioned stimulus or CS is a previously neutral stimulus.
The bell became a CS in Pavlov’s study.
A conditioned response or CR is the learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
Salivation at the sound of the bell.

11. Classical Conditioning cont’d
Generalization- a new stimulus similar to the original that causes the same reaction or response
Discrimination- the process of only responding to certain stimuli and not generalizing them with others
Extinction- the weakening of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer present
Spontaneous recovery- a conditioned response recurring after a period of time without further conditioning

12. Classical conditioning and fears
John B. Watson (coined the term behaviorism) and his assistant Rosalie Rayner how we develop fears based on classical conditioning.
Little Albert study

13. Little Albert

14. Operant Conditioning
Remember that operant conditioning is a form of associative learning.
B.F. Skinner is the primary figure in operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning is the association between a behavior and the consequences (good or bad).
E.L. Thorndike (1898)
The Puzzle Box
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
States that behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened. Behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.

15. Operant Conditioning
Skinner trained pigeons to pilot missiles, which was done by shaping.
Shaping- rewarding successive approximations (attempts) of the desired behavior

16. Operant Conditioning Principles of reinforcement
Reinforcement- is the process by which a stimulus or event following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again
There is positive and negative reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement increases behavior because it is followed by a desirable stimulus.
Negative reinforcement increases behavior because it is followed by the removal of something undesirable.

17. Operant Conditioning There are two types of reinforcers.
Primary reinforcers do not take any kind of learning to make it pleasurable, such as food & water. Innately positive.
Secondary reinforcers gets it positive or pleasurable value through our experiences; it is learned or conditioned, like getting a good grade on a test or getting a paycheck from a job. They are not innately positive.
Secondary reinforcers are used in a system called token economy.
Token economy is behaviors that are rewarded and can later be exchanged for a desired reward.

18. Generalization, discrimination & extinction in Operant Conditioning
Generalization is performing a reinforced behavior in different situations.
Ex: study 1 hour a day for psychology, get good grades, do the same for other classes
Discrimination is responding appropriately to a stimuli which signals that a behavior will or will not be reinforced.
Ex: Being excited to show your student id to get a discount at the movies
Extinction is when a behavior is no longer reinforced or decreases in frequency.
Using a vending machine frequently then stop when it takes your money

19. Operant Conditioning
Punishment is a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.
Positive punishment presents a stimulus to decrease behavior.
Negative punishment removes something to decrease behavior.
Applied behavior analysis (behavior modification) - is the use of operant conditioning principles (rewards and punishments) to change human behavior.

21. Observational Learning
Albert Bandura
Observational learning, or imitation or modeling is learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior.
What neurons are used in observational learning?
The Bobo doll experiment