Learning Perspective.

Learning Perspective

GENERAL LEARNING PERSPECTIVE
Study of how humans learn has been dominated by behaviorism Behaviorism developed simultaneously in Russia and the US, becoming a major force in the beginning of the 20th century. Traditional behaviorists believed that all organisms learn the same way & that all learning can be explained by the processes of classical and operant conditioning.

GENERAL LEARNING PERSPECTIVE
* Psychologists within this perspective investigate the way in which behavior changes. Usually using laboratory experiments and often using non-human animals. Alternative theories have challenged traditional learning theory - learning is more than stimulus-response. cognitive (innate knowledge, genetic) Biological (synaptic impulses) environmental factors (social)

Basic Assumptions LEARNING PERSPECTIVE
Majority of behavior is learned from environment after birth. -Behaviorism is the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate Psychology should investigate the laws and products of learning Only observable behaviors should be studied if psychology is to be objective Animals differ from humans only in the complexity of their behavior. By studying the acquisition of behaviours in animals we can apply it to humans.

Basic Assumptions LEARNING PERSPECTIVE
There is an innate predisposition to learning Learning can take place in the absence of reinforcement The systematic study of learning can generate laws to understand, predict and control behavior. Since behavior is determined by the environment, and since we are a total of all our past learning experiences, freewill is an illusion

LEARNING Methodologies Studies usually are done in laboratory and using animals. However such research has been seen as both theoretically and ethically contentious. Use experiments, observations, interviews and verbal protocols. Mainly quantitative research.

THEORISTS LEARNING Ivan Pavlov John Watson - Albert Bandura Edward C. Tolman Wolfgang Kohler B. F. Skinner

Involves associations between environmental stimuli and responses.
What is Learning? Learning is relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs because of experience. Behaviorist view: Learning is the most important influence on behavior Basic Learning: Involves associations between environmental stimuli and responses.

Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning aka Pavlovian or respondent conditioning A previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar response. or New reflexes from old IVAN PAVLOV

Classical Conditioning cont’d
Classical Conditioning cont’d US (unconditioned stimulus) An event or thing that elicits a response automatically or “reflexively” (FOOD) UR (unconditioned response) Automatically produced response (SALIVATING TO FOOD) CS (conditioned stimulus) Initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an US (BELL) CR (conditioned response) Response that occurs after an CS is associated with an US (SALIVATING TO BELL)

Principles of Classical Conditioning includes the following: Extinction Weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response. Occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US Spontaneous Recovery Response can reappear Higher-order conditioning Neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established CS Stimulus generalization Stimulus that resembles the CS elicits the CR Stimulus discrimination Stimulus similar to the CS fails to elicit the CR

What is learned in Classical Conditioning CS must reliably predict the US SO CS must precede the US When forming response, presentation of the neutral stimulus and the presentation of the US should generally be less than a second apart Classical conditioning in real life Learning to like Pairing of product with music, attractive people, etc. in marketing

Real life cont’d Learning to fear Learn to fear anything that elicits pain, surprise or embarassment Phobia An acquired, irrational fear of a specific object or situation “Little Albert” Biologically primed to fear some things more easily Counterconditioning Treatment for phobia – involves systematic desensitization Accounting for taste (taste aversion) Learned when various foods or odors are paired with nausea-inducing stimulus Occurs after long delay – aversion to bad food has survival value and probably biologically primed

Real life cont’d Reacting to medical treatments Nausea resulting from chemotherapy may generalize to many aspects or even mental images of the medical situation

Operant Conditioning aka instrumental conditioning
Process by which a response becomes more or less likely to occur, depending on its consequences (reward or punishment). Contrast: Classical conditioning = reflexive Operant conditioning = responsive Bjorn Borg John McEnroe

Operant Conditioning, cont’d
Edward Thorndike Thorndike’s Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by pleasant consequences to recur Behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences to not to recur Skinner called his approach “radical behaviorism” Argued: to understand behavior focus on the external causes of an action and the action’s consequences (outside the individual) In favor of determinism, said freewill is an illusion Environmental consequences may not “stamp in” behavior but may determine the probability that an action will occur

Consequences of Behavior Behavior leads to one of three consequences: Neutral consequences do not alter the response Reinforcement strengthens the response (makes it more likely to occur) Punishment weakens the response (makes it less likely to occur) Primary and Secondary Reinforcers and Punishers Primary Reinforcer: such as food, satisfying a biological need Primary Punishers: such as extreme heat, are stimuli that are inherently punishing Secondary Reinforcers and Secondary Punishers: acquire their ability to influence behavior through association with primary reinforcers and punishers. (learned, I.e. money, awards, praise, applause)

QUIZ Five-year-old Margie is watching a storm from her window. A huge bolt of lightning is followed by a tremendous thunderclap and Margie jumps at the noise. This happens several more times. There is a brief lull and then another lightning bolt. Margie jumps in response to the bolt. List the US, UR, CS & CR After he is bitten by a German shepherd Nick’s heart speeds up whenever he sees a dog of that breed – and it also speeds up whenever he sees a Labrador retriever. This is an example of what? Supply the correct term for each situation: A toddler is afraid of the bath, so her father puts just a little water in the tub and gives the child a lollipop to suck on while she is being washed. Soon, the little girl loses her fear of the bath. A factory worker notices that his mouth waters whenever a bell signals the beginning of his lunch break. One day the bell goes haywire and rings every half hour. By the end of the day, the worker has stopped salivating to the bell.

Positive and Negative Reinforcers POSITIVE = RECEIVING NEGATIVE = TAKING AWAY Positive reinforcement: a reinforcement procedure in which a response is followed by the presentation of, or increase in intensity of, a reinforcing stimulus; as a result, the response becomes stronger or more likely to occur Negative reinforcement: a reinforcement procedure in which a response is followed by the removal, delay or decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; as a result, the response becomes stronger and more likely to occur.

Positive and Negative Reinforcers A+ Positive reinforcer: Good grade Behavior: Studying Result: Studying increases Negative reinforcers Nagging stops

Positive and Negative Punishment Positive Punishment: presenting something unpleasant following an undesired response, making the response less likely. Negative Punishment: Removing something pleasant following an undesired response, making the response less likely.

Positive and Negative Punishment Positive punishment: Ridicule by friends Behavior: Studying Results: Studying DECREASES Negative punishment: Loss of time with friends

Review/Quiz What is a US? What is a CR?
What is the difference between conditioned versus unconditioned response? Can fear be learned? Explain. What is extinction? Give an example. Identify two psychologists who are related to Cognitive learning. Include brief information regarding their studies. What is positive reinforcement? What is negative reinforcement? What is positive punishment? Give an example. Draw a diagram of positive and negative reinforcers/punishment.

Principles of Operant Conditioning Extinction: weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response. In operant conditioning, it occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer. Immediate vs Delayed Consequences: The sooner a reinforcer or punisher follows a response, the greater its effect (house training, losing weight) Stimulus Generalization: Response to occur with similar reinforcers or punishers Stimulus Discrimination: Response only occurs with particular stimulus Shaping*** Rewarding of successive approximations Can be used to establish complex responses

Skinner Box

Principles of Operant Conditioning Learning on Schedule. Reinforcers are delivered according to different schedules. Continuous reinforcement: Response rewarded EVERY time Intermittent (partial) reinforcement: Reinforcing only SOME responses Ratio Schedules -Certain number of responses rewarded (every 5th) Interval schedules -Certain amount of time since last reinforcement rewarded Intermittent reinforcement can be fixed or variable (every 5th or 5th, then 8th, then 12th, etc.) Best way to get a response to continue is intermittent reinforcement!

Operant Conditioning in Real Life
Behavior modification Application of conditioning techniques to teach new responses or reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior. Toilet training, breaking habits, incentive Pros and Cons of Punishment When punishment works -Can eliminate self-destructive behavior if it is applied immediately following the behavior -Mild punishers are as effective as strong ones -Consistency is more important than severity

When Punishment Fails Often administered inappropriately or mindlessly (hitting or throwing things in a rage) Recipient often responds with anxiety, fear or rage Generalizes to entire situation Effectiveness often temporary depends heavily upon presence of punisher Most misbehavior is hard to punish immediately And during the delay there may be reinforcement of behavior Punishment conveys little information What NOT to do, but not what TO do. An action intended to punish may actually reinforce behavior because it brings attention Attention-seeking Punishment should only be used when: -Does not involve physical ABUSE (time-out, loss of privileges) -Is accompanied by info about correct behavior -Followed by reinforcement of desired behaviors

Problems with Rewards Extrinsic reinforcers Not inherently related to activity being reinforced (money, hugs) Intrinsic reinforcers Related to activity being reinforced (satisfaction, enjoyment) Undermining Extrinsic can undermine intrinsic reinforcers Destroying the pleasure of doing something for its own sake If we get “paid” for it, it becomes work so if not “paid” no work! Balance Short-term extrinsic reinforcers should be balanced with long-term intrinsic reinforcers

The World as the Behaviorist Views it…
B. F. Skinner Food delivered every 15 seconds Pigeons are often in motion which meant they were doing something when the food was delivered This behavior was reinforced entirely by chance Within a short time 6 of 8 pigeons were doing some sort of “ritual” to obtain food even though food was delivered anyway So the birds were behaving superstitiously Coincidental reinforcement can create superstitions

Superstition Cross your fingers? Carry a lucky charm? Only use a certain pen during tests? Coincidental reinforcement can create superstitions Response may be intermittently reinforced, making it resistant to extinction Superstitions may persist because attention may be paid only to confirming evidence and they are reinforced by agreement of others

Insight Learning or problem solving that appears to occur in a “flash” Wolfgang Kohler Chimpanzees & food Used objects Robert Epstein Pigeons & bananas Used objects

Myths & Realities Learning perspective helps explain how behaviors (perplexing, self-defeating or even “natural”) can be the result of patterns of reinforcement Once understood these can be manipulated to alter behavior and improve lives Biology places limits on what an organism can learn You cannot teach a fish to climb a ladder Skinner maintained that thoughts and feelings are themselves behaviors that can be reinforced or punished. We should manipulate the environment to alter behavior Skinner’s “Baby Tender”

Homework: Think of a habit you would like to get rid of.
Describe the habit in operant terms (what are the reinforcers, punishers, etc.). Chart the occurrence of the undesired response over some period of time. Then, using operant principles (such as punishment or rewards) devise a behavioral plan to change your habit.

Social Learning (imitation)
Learning and Behavior Social Learning (imitation) *Emphasizes behavior is learned and maintained through interaction between individuals and their environment *Stongly influenced by cognitive processes such as: Observations Expectations Perceptions Motivational beliefs

Social Learning Emphasizes four phenomena: Latent Learning
Learning not immediately expressed in a response Remains “latent” until circumstance allow or require it Learning occurs without obvious reinforcement Involves gaining knowledge about responses and their consequences Observational learning Learning new responses by observing behavior of another Modeling Vicarious conditioning Explains why children often imitate adults and television Film industry standards

Social Learning cont’d
Power of Perceptions Two can experience same & interpret differently Ie. Aggression and violent media Observing aggressive behavior in media may lead some, but not all, viewers to be more aggressive BUT aggressive people may also be attracted to violent media Cognitive processes of perception and interpretation, along with other personality dispositions intervene between what we see, what we learn and how we respond Motivating Beliefs Our learned habits, beliefs and goals exert effects on behavior Motivation Process within which causes movement toward or away from an unpleasant situation

Motivating Beliefs cont’d Locus of control General expectation about whether the results of a person’s actions are under one’s control or not Internal locus: under person’s control (achievement & health benefits) External locus: beyond the person’s control (victims) Self-fulfilling prophecy: Expectation comes true because the person holding it acts in ways to bring it about. Explanatory style Characteristic way of explaining one’s successes & failures

Motivating Beliefs cont’d Pessimistic explanatory style Associated with depression Attribute failures to internal, stable and global characteristics Optimistic explanatory styles Associated with achievement, resilience and health Attribute failures to external and unstable factors that are limited in impact Self-efficacy Belief a person is capable of producing desired results Affects task performance, commitment to goals, persistence, career choice, ability to handle stress.

Motivating Beliefs cont’d Self-efficacy acquired from: Experiences in mastering new skills & overcoming obstacles Having successful and competent role models Getting feedback & encouragement from others Learning how to read and manage your own physiological state People with high self-efficacy interpret failure as a learning opportunity Self-efficacy related to goals Performance goals (Performing well in front of others) works against self-efficacy Mastery goals (increasing one’s competence & skills) feel greater intrinsic pleasure at accomplishment

The Gender Puzzle Questions
1. Why are intersex births referred to as emergencies? 2. Why is the practice of sexual reassignment an issue according to the Intersex Society of North America? 3. What is the process that determines our sexuality? 4. Why is, according to the article, gender more than genetics? 5. After reading this article, what do you think would be the most difficult part of raising an “intersex” child? 6. What is the difference between ‘gender’ and ‘sex’?

Gender Stereotyping in Children’s Items
Each group will investigate the extent of gender-role stereotyping in: 1: Children’s books and comics 2: Television advertisements aimed at children 3: Television programs for children (noncartoon) 4: Children’s movies 5: Television programs for children (cartoon) 6: Children’s toys

Gender Stereotyping in Children’s Items
Each group will have a summary of findings & a visual aid on the extent of gender-role stereotyping Spokesperson for each group will present summary of findings (at least one person) Describe and evaluate the relative influence of environmental factors in gender role acquisition Must have: Explanation of what shows the stereotype Examples gender stereotypes Examples of things that go AGAINST the stereotypes Examples of gender neutral items Be prepared for audience questions

Social Learning Learning rules of gender
Sex refers to anatomical and physical attributes of males and females Gender refers to human attributes that are culturally and psychologicall defined as more appropriate for one sex than the other Gender identity - sense of being male or female Gender typing – how children learn everything associated with “masculine” or “feminine” in culture (I.e. abilities, interests, behaviors)

Learning rules of gender cont’d Limitation of Behavioral explanations Early theories emphasized reinforcement and punishment assuming the child is a passive participant in it’s upbringing (do whatever told) Gender typing begins at birth Children act out gender stereotypes despite parental influence Boys & girls segregate themselves into single-sex play groups Children select whom they will imitate Children unlikely to imitate same-sex parent’s nontraditional behavior Reinforcement works only when certain people administer it Parents often reinforce children’s gender-typed preferences Biological psychologists believe gender-typed behavior has biological basis/behaviorists believe gender-typing results from: Subtle and unintended reinforcers Development of children’s cognitive understanding of gender Specific situations the child is in

Learning rules of gender cont’d Hidden reinforcers Subtle gender messages often communicated without awareness Gender messages reflect adults’ belief and expectations Gender Schemas Mental network of knowledge, beliefs, metaphors, and expectations about what it means to be male or female & once a gender schema is developed, children change their behavior to conform to it Are learned early in life Effect preference for playmates, toys and styles of play Seem to be more rigid for boys than for girls Can change throughout life as they accommodate to new experiences.

Learning rules of gender cont’d Gender in Social Context Some situations evoke gender-typed behavior, others do not People adjust their behavior to situations Cross-gendered kinds of behaviors by middle age More likely to attribute behavior to sex when group contains only one female (or male When women are not “tokens” (or small percentage) they are perceived as being diverse

Is population density related to crime rate?
VIOLENCE RESEARCH Calhoun’s Theory Is population density related to crime rate? In the 1960’s Calhoun raised rats in over-crowded or high-density cages. He noticed several behavior not commonly found in normal living conditions. These were remarkably similar to human behavior and included: Formation of gangs Gang fights Theft Rape This research study attempts to confirm Calhoun’s theory for humans; that population density is related to the crime rate.

VIOLENCE RESEARCH Calhoun’s Theory Is population density related to crime rate? Design Independent variable: population density Dependent variable: crime rate Population density will be determined by dividing a city’s population by its size in square miles Crime rate will be determined by dividing the number of reported crimes in a year’s time by the population for that year. The cities: Data for a total of twenty-one cities will be used 7 small, under 200,000 7 medium, between 200,000 & 1,000,000 7 large, over 1,000,000

VIOLENCE RESEARCH Calhoun’s Theory Is population density related to crime rate? Reference material Latest update of the U.S. Census will be used for the city’s population and square miles FBI’s Uniform Crime Report will be used for the crime data Procedure: Team will decide which particular cities to use Team will decide what specific crime or category of crimes to use: for example: murders or all felonies Discussion: Discuss your findings Discuss whether the statistics support the statement offered by Calhoun How would inconsistencies of reporting by the police effect the data? Graph your findings

Social Learning Learning to be Moral
Morality involves kindness, fairness, responsibility, empathy, consideration, conscience and good intentions Helping a friend cheat on an exam may be “kind” but it is not “right” therefore not “moral Moral person takes responsibility for their occasional lapses of kindness and fair play; does not rely on excuses and lies Moral behavior rests on good intentions – one’s goal is primarily the well-being of others Visiting your 95-year-old aunt only because you hope to inherit her estate is not a moral act.

Learning to be Moral cont’d Kohlberg’s theory on moral reasoning Preconventional morality Based on punishment, direction of authority and desire to obey or disobey Conventional morality Based on trust, caring and loyalty Postconventional (“principled”) morality Based on principles of justice Limitations to Kohlberg’s theory Overlooks educational and cultural influence on moral reasoning Sometimes confuses verbal sophistication with morality Moral reasoning is often inconsistent across situations Moral reasoning is often unrelated to moral behavior

Learning to be Moral cont’d Do men and women base moral decisions on different bases? According to Gilligan: Women base on: compassions & care Men base on: abstract principles such as law & justice Research indicate people of both sexes use both bases

Learning to be Moral cont’d Moral Emotions Capacity for moral feelings seems to be inborn and develop from: Moral sense develops out of a child’s attachment to parents Empathy is the ability to feel badly about another person’s unhappiness or pain and is essential for internalizing morality Shame a wound to the self concept at having done something wrong Guilt remorse for not living up to one’s own standards Beware – children internalize moral standards as much from how parents ACT as from what they TEACH

Learning to be Moral cont’d Parental techniques Power assertion correcting a child’s behavior using punishment & authority Associated with lack of moral feeling & behavior in children, poor self-control, an inability to internalize moral standards Induction appealing to child’s abilities, sense of responsibility & feelings for others Associated with guilt when hurting others, internal standards of right & wrong, confession rather than lying, accepting responsibility & thoughtfulness Punishments accompanied by explanations, consistent discipline, affection & high parental expectations are essential Moral expectations vary across cultures The most altruistic cultures have children assigned tasks such as preparing food & caring for younger children

Evaluating the Learning Perspective
Contributions Recognition that whether we know it or not: We all influence others We are influenced BY others Naming a behavior does not EXPLAIN it Wide range of practical applications Example: Setting goals is most likely to improve performance when: The goal is specific The goal is challenging but achievable The goal is framed in terms of getting what you WANT not what you do NOT WANT

Contributions cont’d Applicable to solving personal and social problems Self-efficacy can be acquired and improved Health habits can be improved Raise self-efficacy Raise internal locus of control Provide positive models

Limitations & Misuses Influence one influence of learning at a time but behavior caused by complex interactions Environmental reductionism Attributes all behavior to situational factors Assumes if something is learned, it can easily be changed Oversimplification in applying learning techniques Assumes mechanisms of learning identical for all species

Issues under this heading Freewill vs. determinism Behavior is determined by the environment (Skinner) Reductionism vs. non-reductionism Behavior can be reduced to stimulus-response associations Nature vs. nurture Behavior is learned Objectivity vs. subjectivity Only data worth having is objective data

Behavioral Therapy 1. What is the aim of behavioral therapy?
2. What are two techniques used in behavioral therapy? 3. What researcher is important to the learning approach to psychology? 4. What is one strength of the learning approach to psychology? 5. What is one weakness to the learning approach to psychology? 6. Briefly discuss the main view behind the behavioral approach to psychology.

Behavioral Therapy Behavior Treatments
1. Thoroughly describe one behavior therapy treatment using classical conditioning techniques. Be sure to include technique, application, effectiveness & appropriateness. 2. Thoroughly describe one behavior therapy treatment using operant conditioning techniques. Be sure to include technique, application, effectiveness & appropriateness.

Understanding OCD Questions
What are the treatments for OCD? What is OCD? What are some research theories on the causes of OCD? How is an OCD patient supposed to solve their problems? When CBT is used, what does it focus on for treatment? Why is CBT important? What is the difference between CBT and Psychoanalytic theory in relation to OCD? Describe the OCD cycle. What are three common obsessions? Why is there a delay in correct diagnosis of the disease? What are two common compulsions? What is one support group for OCD and how do you contact them? What is the approximate number of people in the U.S. with OCD? Why does Sheila Cavanaugh say that the television series “Monk” is unrealistic?

“Little Emotional Albert” J. B. Watson & R
“Little Emotional Albert” J.B. Watson & R. Rayner: Experiment on conditioned emotional responses Questions 1. What are subsequent areas of study on this subject? 2. How do we learn our emotional reactions? 3. What were Watson’s goals for these experiments? 4. Discuss recent applications of this research. 5. What is the significance of the findings of this research? 6. What are Watson’s beliefs on emotion? 7. What are the criticisms of this research? 8. What are your own daily, practical applications of this research? 9. Explain the methods of this experiment. 10. After reading the article conclusion, what is YOUR conclusion? 11. What did Watson claim he could do in 1913?

“See Aggression…Do Aggression”
1. What are subsequent areas of study on this subject? 2. What are the goals of social psychologists regarding aggression? 3. Briefly discuss the results of this experiment. 4. Discuss recent applications of this research. 5. Describe the most famous experiment Bandura performed in the area of aggression 6. What subsequent research has been performed as a result of this experiment? 7. What are the criticisms of this research? 8. What were Bandura’s four predictions regarding his experiment? 9. According to social psychologists why is there such difficulty in deciding on one definition for aggression? 10. After reading the article conclusion, what is YOUR conclusion?

The Gender Puzzle 1. If changes are delayed there are major psychological/social problems in the child. 2. It clouds the issue of what gender is and how it is legally determined. Testosterone in the womb determines our sexuality. Gender is also defined by culturally specific roles and responsibilities for females and males that are learned, may change over time and vary among societies. Answers will vary (opinion question). “Sex” deals with biological (anatomical) differences & “gender” deals with attitudes about what is masculine & feminine.

STRENGTHS & LIMITATIONS
LEARNING STRENGTHS & LIMITATIONS LIMITATIONS STRENGTHS Experimental methodology Behaviorists tend to ignore innate biological aspects. Has many practical applications in education, therapy, advertising. Cognitive psych: behaviorism ignores important mental processes involved in learning Lack of ecological validity Social learning has overcome weaknesses of the traditional behaviorism. Use of animals: there is a biologically qualitative difference between humans and other animals. Explains great variety of phenomena using a few simple principles Humanists: behaviorism rejects conscious mental experience Psychoanalysis: behaviorism too simplistic, do not take into account the unconscious motives of behavior.

QUIZ Behavioral Therapy Classical condition techniques
1. Thoroughly describe one behavior therapy treatment using classical conditioning techniques. Be sure to include technique, application, effectiveness & appropriateness.

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