© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

LECTURE OUTLINE Anatomy & Physiology Introduction
Characteristics of the Human Body Levels of Organization Body Systems Homeostasis Anatomical Terminology Body Structures and Cavities Medical Diagnosis and Imaging Techniques

1-1 Anatomy and Physiology Directly Affect Your Life
Study of structures of the body Oldest medical science (1600 B.C.) Physiology Study of how living organisms perform their vital function

Anatomy Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, examines structures without the use of the microscope Subdivisions Regional anatomy: Specific regions of the body. Systemic anatomy: Specific system of the body. Surface anatomy: Body surface. Comparative anatomy: Between different species Developmental anatomy: Structural changes from fertilized egg to an adult form. Embryology: Study of the structural changes from fertilized egg to the eighth week of development.

Microscopic anatomy examines structures not visible to the naked eye
Subdivisions Histology: study of tissues and their structures Cytology: study of cells and their structures Microscopes include Light Microscope: Compound Electron Microscopes: Transmission and Scanning

Physiology is the study of function Subdivisions Neurophysiology: Functions of the nervous system. Endocrinology: Hormones and their control of body functions. Cardiovascular physiology: Functions of heart, blood and blood vessels. Immunology: Body defence. Respiratory physiology: Functions of the lung system. Renal Physiology: Functions of the kidney system. Exercise physiology: Functional changes in the body during exercise. Pathophysiology: Functional changes associated with diseases. Reproductive Physiology: Functions of the reproductive system.

Characteristics of the Human Body
Organization: Increasing levels of complexity in structure and function Metabolism: All the chemical reactions (anabolic and catabolic) that occur in the body. Responsiveness and movement: of cells, organs, body parts or the whole body. Homeostasis: Maintenance of stable internal conditions Development : Growth: Increase in body size due to increase in cell number, cell size, or non-living matrix Differentiation: Cells changing from unspecialized to specialized state. Reproduction: Formation of new individual. Evolution: Genetic changes in a population of over time.

1-5 Levels of Organization
Atoms Molecules Organelles Cells Tissues Organs Organ System Organism

Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization
Cellular Level Chemical and Molecular Levels Heart muscle cell Protein filaments Complex protein molecule Organism Atoms in combination Organ system Organ Tissue Cardiac muscle tissue The heart The cardiovascular system 9

1-5 The Organ Systems: Integumentary
Major Organs Skin Hair Sweat glands Nails Functions Protects against environmental hazards Helps regulate body temperature Provides sensory information Vitamin D production

Skeletal Major Organs Functions Bones Cartilages Associated ligaments
Bone marrow Functions Provides support and protection for other tissues Framework for muscles to cause movement Stores calcium and other minerals Forms blood cells

Muscular Major Organs Functions
Skeletal muscles and associated tendons Functions Provides movement Provides protection and support for other tissues Generates heat that maintains body temperature

Nervous Major Organs Functions Brain Spinal cord Peripheral nerves
Sense organs Functions Provides and interprets sensory information about internal and external conditions Directs immediate responses to stimuli Coordinates or moderates activities of organ systems

Major Organs Functions Endocrine Pituitary gland Pineal gland
Thyroid gland Parathyroid glans Thymus Adrenal gland Pancreas Gonads Endocrine tissues in other systems Functions Directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body Controls many structural and functional changes during development Endocrine

Cardiovascular Major Organs Functions Heart Blood Blood vessels
Distributes blood cells, water and dissolved materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide Distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature

Lymphatic Major Organs Functions Spleen Thymus Lymphatic vessels
Lymph nodes Tonsils Functions Defends against infection and disease Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream

Respiratory Major Organs Functions Nasal cavities Sinuses Larynx
Trachea Bronchi Lungs Alveoli Functions Delivers air to alveoli in lungs where gas exchange occurs Provides oxygen to bloodstream Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream Produces sounds for communication

Digestive Major Organs Functions Teeth Tongue
Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Liver Gallbladder Pancreas Functions Processes and digests food Absorbs and conserves water Absorbs nutrients Stores energy reserves

Urinary Major Organs Functions Kidneys Ureters Urinary bladder Urethra
Excretes waste products from the blood Controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH

Reproductive

The following is a list of several levels of organization that make up the human body. Put them in order from smallest to largest. 1) tissue 3) organ 5) system 2) cell 4) organelle a. 1, 3, 4, 2, 5 b. 4, 1, 2, 5, 3 c. 5, 3, 1, 2, 4 d. 4, 2, 1, 3, 5

1) tissue 3) organ 5) system 2) cell 4) organelle a. 1, 3, 4, 2, 5
The following is a list of several levels of organization that make up the human body. Put them in order from smallest to largest. 1) tissue 3) organ 5) system 2) cell 4) organelle a. 1, 3, 4, 2, 5 b. 4, 1, 2, 5, 3 c. 5, 3, 1, 2, 4 d. 4, 2, 1, 3, 5 22

What is NOT true of the lymphatic system?
a. defends against infection b. includes the liver and the pancreas c. returns fluids to the bloodstream d. includes the tonsils and the thymus

1-6 Homeostasis Homeostasis is the ability of the body to maintain a stable internal environment despite changing external conditions Organ systems responds to external and internal changes to keep body parameters within physiological limits Example: Blood glucose level is kept within narrow range mg/dl. Body temperature is maintained 37°C. Set point: An ideal normal value. Range: Maintaining functions around the set point.

Systems that Control Homeostasis
Nervous system: Controls by sending impulses to the brain and spinal cord and then to the effectors (muscles and glands). Endocrine system: Controls by regulating hormone secretion of the endocrine glands.

Homeostatic Regulatory Mechanism
Feedback: A cycle of events by which homeostasis is maintained. Components of a feedback mechanism: Receptor – senses changes in the external and internal environment. Control Center – evaluates the input and dictates the required changes. Effector – makes the required changes.

1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback
Negative feedback opposes variations from normal Positive feedback exaggerates variations from normal

Negative Feedback is a corrective mechanism involving an action that directly opposes a variation from normal limits The response of the effector negates the stimulus Body is brought back into homeostasis Normal range is achieved

Figure 1-3 Negative Feedback in the Control of Body Temperature
RECEPTORS Temperature sensors in skin and hypothalamus Information affects Normal temperature disturbed CONTROL CENTER STIMULUS: Body temperature rises HOMEOSTASIS Thermoregulatory center in brain Normal body temperature Vessels dilate, sweating increases Vessels constrict, sweating decreases RESPONSE: Increased heat loss, body temperature drops 37.2 Normal temperature restored EFFECTORS Sends commands to Body temperature (°C) Normal range 37 • Sweat glands in skin increase secretion • Blood vessels in skin dilate 36.7 Time Events in the regulation of body temperature, which are comparable to those shown in Figure 12. A control center in the brain (the hypothalamus) functions as a thermostat with a set point of 37°C. If body temperature exceeds 37.2°C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flow to the skin and increased sweating. The thermoregulatory center keeps body temperature fluctuating within an acceptable range, usually between 36.7 and 37.2°C. 30

Figure 1-2 The Control of Room Temperature.
RECEPTOR Information affects Normal condition disturbed Thermometer STIMULUS: Room temperature rises CONTROL CENTER (Thermostat) HOMEOSTASIS Normal room temperature Air conditioner turns on Air conditioner turns off RESPONSE: Room temperature drops 20 30 40 Set point Normal range Room temperature (C) 22 Normal condition restored EFFECTOR Sends commands to Air conditioner turns on Time a In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer), a thermostat (the control center) triggers an effector response (either an air conditioner or a heater) that restores normal temperature. In this case, when room temperature rises above the set point, the thermostat turns on the air conditioner, and the temperature returns to normal. b With this regulatory system, room temperature fluctuates around the set point, 22C.

The response of the effector increases change of the stimulus
Positive Feedback is where an initial stimulus produces a response which exaggerates or enhances the change in the original condition, creating a positive feedback loop The response of the effector increases change of the stimulus Body is moved away from homeostasis Normal range is lost Used to speed up processes

Figure 1-4 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting.
accelerates Positive feedback loop Chemicals Blood clot Chemicals Damaged cells in the blood vessel wall release chemicals that begin the clotting process. The chemicals start chain reactions in which cells, cell fragments, and soluble proteins in the blood begin to form a clot. As clotting continues, each step releases chemicals that further accelerate the process. This escalating process is a positive feedback loop that ends with the formation of a blood clot, which patches the vessel wall and stops the bleeding.

Example of Positive Feedback: Childbirth

Table 1-1 The Roles of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation.

Organism in homeostasis Internal change results in loss of homeostasis
Figure 1.3 Homeostasis Organism in homeostasis External change Internal change Internal change results in loss of homeostasis Organism attempts to compensate Compensation fails Compensation succeeds Illness or disease Wellness

Most examples of extrinsic regulation of organ systems in the human body will be controlled via ________. a. negative feedback b. positive feedback c. autoregulation d. homeostasis

1-8 Anatomical Terminology
Anatomical position: Standard anatomical reference for the human form. Standing upright, feet together flat on ground, toes pointing forward, hands at sides, palms facing forward Supine: lying down, face up Prone: lying down, face down

Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks
Frontal or forehead Nasal or nose Ocular, orbital or eye Cranial or skull Otic or ear Cephalic or head Buccal or cheek Facial or face Cervical or neck Oral or mouth Mental or chin Thoracic or thorax, chest Axillary or armpit Mammary or breast Brachial or arm Abdominal (abdomen) Trunk Antecubital or front of elbow Umbilical or navel Anterior view 40

Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks
Antebrachial or forearm Pelvic (pelvis) Trunk Carpal or wrist Palmar or palm Manual or hand Pollex or thumb Digits (phalanges) or fingers (digital or phalangeal) Inguinal or groin Pubic (pubis) Patellar or kneecap Femoral or thigh Crural or leg Tarsal or ankle Digits (phalanges) or toes (digital or phalangeal) Pedal or foot Hallux or great toe Anterior view 41

Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks
Cephalic or head Acromial or shoulder Cervical or neck Dorsal or back Olecranal or back of elbow Upper limb Posterior view 42

Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks
Upper limb Lumbar or loin Gluteal or buttock Lower limb Popliteal or back of knee Sural or calf Calcaneal or heel of foot Plantar or sole of foot Posterior view 43

Anatomical Regions: Body regions
Abdominopelvic quadrants Abdominopelvic regions Anatomical Directions Reference terms based on subject

Figure 1-6a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) Abdominopelvic quadrants. The four abdominopelvic quadrants are formed by two perpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. The terms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations, are most often used in clinical discussions. 45

Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
Right hypochondriac region Left hypochondriac region Epigastric region Right lumbar region Umbilical region Left lumbar region Hypogastric (pubic) region Right inguinal region Left inguinal region Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic regions provide more precise regional descriptions. 46

Figure 1-6c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
Liver Stomach Gallbladder Spleen Large intestine Small intestine Appendix Urinary bladder Anatomical relationships. The relationship between the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and the locations of the internal organs are shown here. 47

Figure 1-7 Directional References.
Superior: Above; at a higher level (in the human body, toward the head) The head is superior to the knee. Superior Right Left Cranial or Cephalic Toward the head The cranial, or cephalic, border of the pelvis is superior to the thigh. Proximal Toward an attached base The shoulder is proximal to the wrist. Posterior or Dorsal Anterior or Ventral Posterior: The back surface Anterior: The front surface Dorsal: The back. (equivalent to posterior when referring to the human body) Ventral: The belly side. (equivalent to anterior when referring to the human body) The scapula (shoulder blade) is located posterior to the rib cage. The umbilicus (navel) is on the anterior (or ventral) surface of the trunk. Lateral Medial Away from the midline Toward the midline Proximal Caudal Distal Toward the tail; (coccyx in humans) Away from an attached base The fingers are distal to the wrist. The hips are caudal to the waist. OTHER DIRECTIONAL TERMS Superficial Distal At, near, or relatively close to the body surface The skin is superficial to underlying structures. Deep Toward the interior of the body; farther from the surface The bone of the thigh is deep to the surrounding skeletal muscles. a Anterior view b Lateral view Inferior: Below; at a lower level; toward the feet The knee is inferior to the hip. Inferior

Directional terms Ipsilateral: On the same side of the body.
Contralateral: On opposite sides of the body. Intermediate One structure is between two other structures

Used to study 3 dimensional structure of the body or the body part
Sectional Anatomy Used to study 3 dimensional structure of the body or the body part Plane: an imaginary flat surface passing through the body Section: an actual cut or slice to visualize internal organization and structure

1-7 Anatomical Terminology
Sectional Anatomy Used to study 3 dimensional structure of the body or the body part Plane: an imaginery three-dimensional axis Section: a slice parallel to a plane Used to visualize internal organization and structure Important in radiological techniques MRI PET CT © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Sagittal : Divides the body or an organ into left and right sides
Midsagittal: Through the midline. Equal right and left halves Parasagittal plane/section Away from the midline. Unequal right and left portions 52

Divides the body into anterior and posterior portions
Frontal or Coronal Divides the body into anterior and posterior portions 53

Transverse or Horizontal
Divides the body into superior and inferior portions 54

Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes
Frontal plane Sagittal plane Transverse plane 55

Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes.
Frontal or coronal plane Sagittal plane Plane is oriented parallel to long axis Plane is oriented parallel to long axis A sagittal section separates right and left portions. You examine a sagittal section, but you section sagittally. In a midsagittal section, the plane passes through the midline. It separates the body into equal right and left sides. A parasagittal section misses the midline. It separates the body into unequal right and left sides. A frontal, or coronal, section separates anterior and posterior portions of the body. Coronal usually refers to sections passing through the skull. Directional term: frontally or coronally Midsagittal plane Directional term: sagittally Transverse, or horizontal, plane Plane is oriented perpendicular to long axis Frontal plane A transverse, or cross, section separates superior and inferior portions of the body. Transverse plane (inferior view) Directional term: transversely or horizontally

1-8 Body Cavities Essential Functions of Body Cavities
Protect organs from accidental shocks Permit changes in size and shape of internal organs Ventral Body Cavity (Coelom) Divided by the diaphragm Thoracic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-9 Body Cavities Cranial cavity: Contains the brain.
Body Cavities are paces within the body that help protect, separate and support internal organs. Posterior or dorsal cavity Cranial cavity: Contains the brain. Vertebral cavity: Contains the spinal cord. Ventral body cavity (coelom) Divided by the diaphragm Thoracic cavity Abdominopelvic cavity 1-9 Body Cavities

Ventral body cavity divisions
THORACIC CAVITY pericardial cavity Heart in Right lung in right pleural cavity Left lung in left pleural cavity BODY CAVITIES Mediastinum ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY Diaphragm THORACIC CAVITY The abdominal cavity contains many digestive glands and organs Module 1.8 Body cavities protect internal organs and allow them to change shape Retroperitoneal area Diaphragm The pelvic cavity contains the urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and the last portion of the digestive tract; ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY Acknowledgements:Visual Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology, 1e Martini/Ober

Abdominopelvic Cavity
Figure 1-9 Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Ventral Body Cavity Ventral Body Cavity • Provides protection • Allows organ movement • Linings prevent friction Subdivides during development into Thoracic Cavity Abdominopelvic Cavity Surrounded by chest wall and diaphragm Peritoneal Cavity Extends throughout abdominal cavity and into superior portion of pelvic cavity Right Pleural Cavity Mediastinum Left Pleural Cavity trachea, esophagus, thymus and major vessels Surrounds right lung Surrounds left lung Abdominal Cavity Pelvic Cavity Also contains the Contains many digestive glands and organs Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, last portion of digestive tract, rectum Pericardial cavity Surrounds heart 60

Figure 1-10a The Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions
DORSAL/POSTERIOR VENTRAL/ANTERIOR Cranial cavity Pleural cavity Thoracic cavity Pericardial cavity Vertebral cavity Diaphragm Peritoneal cavity Abdominopelvic cavity Abdominal cavity Pelvic cavity 61

Serous Membranes line ventral body cavities and secrete serous fluid into cavity
Consist of two continuous layers separated by cavity Visceral layer — covers surface of organ Parietal layer — opposing outer layer that covers inner surface of body wall or chamber Cavity: Potential space between visceral and parietal layers

Figure 1-10b The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions
Visceral pericardium Heart Air space Pericardial cavity Balloon Parietal pericardium 63

Serous Membranes in Ventral Cavity
Pericardium: Surrounds heart Visceral pericardium Parietal pericardium Pleura : Surrounds each Lung Visceral pleura Parietal pleura Peritoneum: Surrounds most of abdominopelvic cavity Visceral peritoneum Parietal peritoneum

The Abdominopelvic Cavity Retroperitoneal space
Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular body wall Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, adrenal glands and parts of the digestive tract

Medical Diagnosis and Imaging Techniques
Diagnosis: Identification of disease or disorder: Consultation Medical or familial history of disease Symptoms (subjective changes) or signs (measurable or observable changes) Physical examination Vital signs: temperature, pulse, blood pressure, breathing Palpation Auscultation Laboratory tests Urine test Blood test Biopsy

Medical Diagnosis and Imaging Techniques
Explorative Surgery Medical Imaging Radiography Computed Tomography Scanning (CT Scan) Angiogram & Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Ultrasound

Radiography Uses X-rays
penetrate soft tissues and darken photographic film Dense tissues absorb X-rays so film remains white Radiograph: picture that results; also called an X-ray Radiopaque/contrast agents allow hollow organs to be visualized Major use is osteology, chest examination, mammography, dentistry Disadvantages Radiation exposure Poor resolution of soft tissues and denser structures block less dense structures Conventional X-rays flatten 3-D structures into 2-D images

Computed Tomography (CT)
Uses X-rays Patient moved through cylindrical machine Thin images can be viewed singly or the computer can stack them to give a three dimensional picture Sharper image than simple radiography Useful for soft tissue scanning, identification of tumors, aneurysms, cerebral hemorrhages, kidney stones, trauma Disadvantages: Radiation exposure

Angiogram Uses X-rays in conjunction with injected contrast medium to produces image of blood vessels Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA): Images of vessel taken before and after injection of contrast medium and analyzed by computer Used for diagnosis of aneurisms, atherosclerosis, blocked arteries Disadvantages: Radiation exposure

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Assesses metabolic state of tissues Patient injected with radioactive isotopes including glucose Emitted Positrons collide with electrons giving off Gamma rays that are detected by sensor Analyzed by computer Used to access active brain areas when performing tasks, oncology, heart damage Disadvantages: Cost, messy radioactive tracers, patient discomfort. Cancerous throat tissue

A Technician monitoring the output of a PET scanner
Figure 2.4A Technician monitoring the output of a PET scanner 72

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Patient placed in cylindrical chamber surrounded by electromagnets Body subjected to strong magnetic field which aligns hydrogen atoms, followed by brief pulse of radiowaves to knock out of alignment When magnetic field removed, electrons realign giving off energy. Detected by sensors and analyzed by computers Amount and rate of energy given off depends on tissue type. Functional MRI (fMRI): used to visualize active areas of the brain Better than CT scans for soft tissue. Excellent contrast between normal/abnormal tissue. Disadvantages Cost, Cannot use on patient with metal in their body, limited use for mostly soft tissues, patient discomfort.

Sonography (Ultrasound)
Uses handheld device that uses high-frequency sound waves and detects echo back from internal organs Avoids harmful x rays Used in obstetrics, cardiology 2nd most commonly used of the techniques Disadvantages Image quality, limited use

1-8 Body Cavities Serous Membranes Line body cavities and cover organs
Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer Parietal layer — lines cavity Visceral layer — covers organ © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

1-8 Body Cavities The Thoracic Cavity Right and left pleural cavities
Contain right and left lungs Mediastinum Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymus Lower portion contains pericardial cavity The heart is located within the pericardial cavity © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

A lateral view showing the body cavities
Figure 1-9a Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Body Cavities of the Trunk. POSTERIOR ANTERIOR Thoracic cavity Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity Diaphragm Abdominopelvic cavity Peritoneal cavity Abdominal cavity Pelvic cavity a A lateral view showing the body cavities of the trunk. The muscular diaphragm subdivides them into a superior thoracic cavity and an inferior abdominopelvic cavity. Three of the four adult true body cavities are shown and outlined in red; only one of the two pleural cavities can be shown in a sagittal section.

The heart projects into the pericardial cavity like a fist pushed
Figure 1-9b Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Body Cavities of the Trunk. Visceral pericardium Heart Air space Pericardial cavity Balloon Parietal pericardium b The heart projects into the pericardial cavity like a fist pushed into a balloon. The attachment site, corresponding to the wrist of the hand, lies at the connection between the heart and major blood vessels. The width of the pericardial cavity is exaggerated here; normally the visceral and parietal layers are separated only by a thin layer of pericardial fluid.

Figure 1-9c Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Body Cavities of the Trunk.
ANTERIOR Pericardial cavity Heart Pleural cavity Right lung Parietal pleura Left lung Mediastinum Spinal cord POSTERIOR c A transverse section through the thoracic cavity, showing the central location of the pericardial cavity. The mediastinum and pericardial cavity lie between the two pleural cavities. Note that this transverse or cross- sectional view is oriented as though the observer were standing at the subject’s feet and looking toward the subject’s head. This inferior view of a transverse section is the standard presentation for clinical images. Unless otherwise noted, transverse or cross-sectional views in this text use this same orientation (see Spotlight Figure 1-10).

1-8 Body Cavities The Abdominopelvic Cavity
Peritoneal cavity: chamber within abdominopelvic cavity Parietal peritoneum: lines the internal body wall Visceral peritoneum: covers the organs © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Abdominal cavity — superior portion Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones Contains digestive organs Retroperitoneal space Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular body wall Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the digestive tract © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Which terms below are mismatched?
a. liver/abdominal cavity b. lungs/pleural cavity c. stomach/pelvic cavity d. bladder/pelvic cavity

When the body is in the correct anatomical position, what does that look like?
a. The terms left and right refer to the left and right sides of the observer. b. Hands are at the sides, dorsum of the hand facing forward, legs apart, head slightly to one side. c. Hands are at the sides, palms facing forward, feet together, eyes straight ahead. d. The person must be lying down.

Bruce has gallbladder problems. Where does Bruce have pain?
a. epigastric region b. umbilical region c. right lumbar region d. right upper quadrant

If a surgeon makes an incision just inferior to the diaphragm, which body cavity will be opened?
a. the abdominopelvic cavity b. the pleural cavity c. the dorsal cavity d. the pericardial cavity

The __ peritoneum surrounds organs and the __ peritoneum lines the __
The __ peritoneum surrounds organs and the __ peritoneum lines the __. This membrane functions to __. a. dural; parietal; cranial cavity; separate brain and spinal cord b. pleural; pericardial; thoracic cavity; protect internal structures c. visceral; parietal; abdominopelvic cavity; allow organs to slide across each other d. parietal; visceral; thoracic cavity; allow expansion of organs

The __ peritoneum surrounds organs and the __ peritoneum lines the __
The __ peritoneum surrounds organs and the __ peritoneum lines the __. This membrane functions to __. a. dural; parietal; cranial cavity; separate brain and spinal cord b. pleural; pericardial; thoracic cavity; protect internal structures c. visceral; parietal; abdominopelvic cavity; allow organs to slide across each other d. parietal; visceral; thoracic cavity; allow expansion of organs 92

Which type of section would separate/divide the body down the midline between the eyes?
a. transverse section b. coronal section c. parasagittal section d. midsagittal section

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