Lecture Slides THE ENJOYMENT OF MUSIC SHORTER EDITION by

Lecture Slides THE ENJOYMENT OF MUSIC SHORTER EDITION by
Prelude 1: Listening to Music Today 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Listening to Music Today
Prelude 1 Listening to Music Today

Listening to Music Today
Development of listening skills Repeated encounters Excitement of a live concert Traditions surrounding concerts Most of the time when we hear music, we are engaged in some other activity. This book aims to develop listening skills that expand your musical memory. One way to really get to know the touchstones of our culture is through repeated encounters, and this is aided today by our ability to listen to recorded music whenever we want. Recordings are no substitute for the excitement of a live performance, however. Understanding the traditions surrounding concerts will contribute to your enjoyment of them.

Prelude 1: Listening to Music Today

Attending concerts Finding concerts Prepare for the concert
Music Dept, newspaper calendars, websites Prepare for the concert Dress neatly Arrive early and get a program In order to find concerts, check with your university’s Music Department for on-campus events. Concerts out in the community are usually advertised in the calendar of events included in most newspapers. Searching the Internet for events in your area will also prove fruitful. It is helpful to prepare for a concert by listening in advance to some of the works you will be hearing. Check your textbook, library, and the internet for information about the pieces and/or their composers. If the work is an opera, be sure to read a synopsis. Neat attire is appropriate for most concerts, though the degree of formality may vary. Arrive early enough to get your ticket, find your seat, settle in, and read the program.

The Concert Program Varied works Some in movements
Overture, symphony, concerto A concert program will often contain works of various genres (for example, an overture, a symphony, and a concerto). Some of these will be divided into movements, and this is indicated on your program, along with other information, such as the piece’s title and composer.

During the Performance
Lights dim, tuning ritual follows Entrance of conductor Applaud after complete works or sets When in doubt, follow the lead of others Opera conventions are different When the performance is ready to begin, the lights for the audience will dim and the concertmaster will take the stage. It is customary to applaud this entrance. She will signal to the first oboe to give a tuning note, and the orchestra will tune their instruments. Once satisfied, the concertmaster will sit down and the conductor will enter, accompanied by another round of applause. After that, the concert begins. Many people fret about when to applaud during concerts. It is customary to applaud only after complete works (not between movements) or after a series of shorter works if grouped together in the program as a set. When in doubt, simply follow the lead of others. For opera, the conventions are different, and the audience may applaud (and even shout Bravo!) after particularly well-performed arias.

Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis
Lecture Slides THE ENJOYMENT OF MUSIC SHORTER EDITION 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 1: Melody: Musical Line 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 1: Melody: Musical Line
● A melody is a line, or the tune, in music. ● Each melody is unique in contour (how it moves up and down) and in range, or span of pitches. ● An interval is the distance between any two pitches. A melody that moves in small, connected intervals is conjunct, while one that moves by leaps is disjunct. ● The units that make up a melody are phrases; phrases end in resting places called cadences. ● A melody may be accompanied by a secondary melody, or a countermelody.

Melody: Musical Line Musical sounds have pitch, determined by frequency Pitches represented on five-line staff Symbol designates pitch and duration Pitches also have volume and tone color (timbre) Melodies are a succession of pitches Range is the distance between highest and lowest notes Contour is the overall shape Interval is the distance between any two pitches Conjunct or Disjunct Musical sounds have a discernable pitch, determined by their frequency (number of vibrations per second). These pitches are represented in notation by a symbol called a note, placed on a staff of five parallel lines. This symbol designates both pitch and duration. Pitches also have a certain volume (loudness) and a distinctive tone color, also called timbre. A melody is a succession of single pitches that we hear as a recognizable whole. The pitches of a melody are like the words in a sentence. The overall range of a melody is the distance between its highest and lowest pitches. The “shape” of a melody as its pitch rises and falls is called its contour. The distance between any two pitches is called an interval, and melodies can proceed via conjunct (small, connected) and/or disjunct (large, disconnected) intervals.

The Structure of Melody
Phrase: a unit of meaning within a larger structure Cadences: resting places at ends of phrases Melodies with text may have rhyme scheme Climax: peak of intensity in a melody Countermelody: a melody happening simultaneously with another melody A phrase in music is a unit of meaning within a larger structure. Cadences are resting places appearing at the ends of phrases, like commas or periods in a sentence. Cadences can be conclusive or inconclusive. If the melody has words, the rhyme scheme of the text will be related to the phrases and cadences. Most melodies have a climax, which is the melody’s peak of intensity. This is often the loudest point and has the highest pitches. Sometimes there is also one or more countermelodies; these are melodies that happen simultaneously with the main melody.

Chapter 2: Rhythm and Meter: Musical Time 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 2: Rhythm and Meter: Musical Time
● Rhythm is what moves music forward in time. ● Meter, marked off in measures (or bars), organizes the beats (the basic units) in music. ● Measures often begin with a strong downbeat. ● Simple meters—duple, triple, and quadruple—are the most common; each beat is divided into two. ● Compound meters divide each beat into three rather than two. ● Rhythmic complexities occur with offbeats, syncopation, and polyrhythm. ● Some music is nonmetric, with an obscured pulse.

Rhythm and Meter: Musical Time
Rhythm: movement of music in time Beat: regular pulse, basic unit of rhythm Some beats are accented more than others Patterns of accented and unaccented beats called meters Marked off in measures (bars) Music is propelled forward by rhythm, the movement of music in time. Each note has a length, long or short. The beat is the basic unit of rhythm, and is perceived as an underlying regular pulse. Some beats are stronger than others, helping to organize time into equal segments, usually in recurring units of two or three. These organizing patterns are called meter, which are marked off in notation as measures (bars).

Metrical Patterns Downbeat = strong beat; upbeat = weak beat
Duple meter : ONE two, ONE two, etc. Triple meter: ONE two three, ONE two three, etc. Quadruple: ONE two three four, etc. Simple meters: beat divided into two Compound meters: beat divided into three In a metrical pattern, the strong beat is called the downbeat (coinciding with a downward gesture by the conductor), and the weak beats are called upbeats. The most basic pattern alternates a strong downbeat with a weak upbeat: ONE two, ONE two, etc. Also common is triple meter, which organizes the beat into patterns of one strong beat followed by two weak beats: ONE two three, ONE two three, etc. Quadruple meter is often hard to distinguish from duple meter, and the beat is organized into groups of four: there is a primary accent on the first beat and a secondary accent on the third, with beats two and four unaccented. Each individual beat can be further subdivided, most commonly divided into either two (simple meters) or three (compound meters).

Rhythmic Complexities
Syncopation: accent shifted to a weak beat or an offbeat Polyrhythm: simultaneous use of conflicting rhythmic patterns Additive rhythms: patterns built from combinations Nonmetric: no strong sense of beat or meter One way to keep the recurring accent from becoming monotonous is through the technique of syncopation, a deliberate upsetting of the normal accent pattern. Instead of falling in its usual place on the downbeat, the accent is shifted to either a weak beat or to an offbeat (in between the beats). Conflicting rhythmic patterns may be superimposed (such as duple and triple) to create polyrhythm. This is very common in some African and Indonesian music. Other cultures create meter through additive rhythms, where larger patterns are built from combinations like (=8) rather than recurring patterns of two or three. Some music lacks a strong sense of beat or meter, and is described as nonmetric.

Chapter 3: Harmony: Musical Depth 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 3: Harmony: Musical Depth
● Harmony describes the vertical aspects of music: how notes (pitches) sound together. ● A chord is the simultaneous sounding of three or more pitches; chords are built from a particular scale, or sequence of pitches. ● The most common chord in Western music is a triad, three alternate pitches of a scale. ● Most Western music is based on major or minor scales, from which melody and harmony are derived. ● The tonic is the central pitch around which a melody and its harmonies are built; this principle of organization is called tonality. ● Dissonance is created by an unstable, or discordant, combination of pitches. Consonance occurs with a resolution of dissonance, producing a stable or restful sound.

Harmony: Musical Depth
Harmony: simultaneous combination of sounds Chord: three or more notes sounded together Scales: collection of pitches arranged in ascending or descending order Octave: interval spanning eight notes Triad: three-pitch chord, every other note in a scale Harmony adds depth to the linear movement of melody. Harmony is the simultaneous combination of sounds. When three or more notes are sounded together, a chord is produces. The progression of harmony is what creates a sense of order and unity. The intervals from which chords and melodies are built are chosen from a scale, a collection of pitches arranged in ascending or descending order. The notes of a scale are assigned either syllables (do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-ti-do) or numbers ( ). An interval spanning eight notes is called an octave. Triads are the most common chords in Western music. These consist of three pitches, built on any note of the scale by combining every other note (do-mi-sol, re-fa-la, etc.).

The Organization of Harmony
Tonic: first note of a scale, “home base” Organization around a central note called tonality In most Western music, the first note of the scale is called the tonic and is the home base around which all the other notes revolve and gravitate toward. The principle of organizing a work or portion of a work around a central note is called tonality.

Consonance and Dissonance
Tension and release as music moves in time Tension = dissonance, conflict Release = consonance, relaxation Harmony can be as simple as a sustained drone The movements of harmony toward resolution is the dynamic force in Western music. As music moves in time we feel a sense of tension and release. The tension is usually a result of dissonance, or conflict, and the release is a result of consonance, pleasing combinations of pitches offering a sense of relaxation. In some cultures and traditions, harmony is provided by a single, sustained pitch called a drone, against which melodic and rhythmic complexities unfold.

Consonance and Dissonance

Chapter 4: The Organization of Musical Sounds 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 4: The Organization of Musical Sounds
● An octave is the interval spanning eight notes of the scale. In Western music, the octave is divided into twelve half steps; two half steps make a whole step. ● The chromatic scale is made up of all twelve half steps, while a diatonic scale consists of seven whole and half steps whose patterns form major and minor scales. ● A sharp (♯) is a symbol that raises a pitch by a half step; a flat (♭) lowers a pitch by a half step. ● Other scale types are found around the world, sometimes using microtones, which are intervals smaller than half steps. ● The tonic chord, built on the first scale note, is the home base to which active chords (dominant and subdominant) need to resolve. ● Composers can shift the pitch level (key) of an entire work (transposition), or change the key during a work (modulation).

The Organization of Musical Sounds
Pitches named using letters A–G Start over again when octave reached Western music divides octave into twelve equal semitones (half-steps) Some non-Western cultures have smaller intervals, called microtones Melody and harmony function together to construct a musical system. Pitches are named using the first seven letters of the alphabet (A–G), which start over again when an octave is reached. In Western music, the octave is divided into twelve equal parts, called semitones or half-steps. Other traditions divide the octave into smaller intervals, called microtones.

The Chromatic Scale The twelve half-steps that make up the octave constitute the chromatic scale Visualized on piano keyboard, all the white and black keys between two pitches an octave apart Black keys named in relation to white-key neighbors sharp (#) or flat (b) Two half-steps = one whole step The twelve half-steps that make up the octave constitute the chromatic scale. These correspond to all the white and black keys between an octave on the piano keyboard. Black keys are named in relation to their white-key neighbors. For instance, the black key between G and A can be referred to as G-sharp (one semitone higher than G) or A-flat (one semitone lower than A). Two half steps = a tone, or one whole step

The Major Scale Key = the central tone around which a piece is built and its harmonies derived Sequence of pitches in a specific pattern of whole (W) and half- (H) steps: W—W—H—W—W—W—H Relationships based on tension and resolution Such as seventh pitch resolving to the eighth Tonic and dominant (fifth note in the scale) harmonies two main poles The key of a piece is the the central tone around which a piece is built and its harmonies derived. A piece said to be in C major has C as its tonic and harmonies derived from the C major scale. Tonality in Western music tends to use one of two scale types: major and minor. A major scale is a scale arranged in the specific pattern of whole (W) and half (H) steps W-W-H-W-W-W-H. Within each major scale are relationships based on tension and resolution, such as the seventh pitch resolving to the eighth. The major scale defines the two poles of traditional harmony, the chords built on the tonic and dominant (fifth) scale degrees.

The Minor Scale Minor scales arranged according to the pattern: W—H—W—W—H—W—W Minor keys often heard as sad or serious, major keys as cheerful The other common scale in the Western system of tonality is called the minor scale. Its pitches are arranged according to the pattern W-H-W-W-H-W-W. In comparison to the major scale, the minor scale’s distinctive feature is a lowered third scale degree. Minor keys are often heard as sad or serious, and major keys as cheerful, but this is mostly due to acculturation. In the Bach theme for The Art of Fugue, one hears the smaller third at the outset, as the melody outlines a minor third and then descends in a minor scale.

Diatonic vs. Chromatic Diatonic music is firmly rooted in the notes of a key Chromatic music introduces notes foreign to the key, drawn from the chromatic scale Music in a major or minor key focuses on the seven notes of the respective scale and is considered diatonic. Both the melody and the harmony are firmly rooted in the key. Some compositions introduce notes foreign to the scale, drawing from the full gamut of the twelve half steps that span the octave. This music is said to be chromatic, since it uses the chromatic scale.

Other Scale Types Pentatonic scale: a five-note scale
Tritonic scale: three-note pattern Microtones often produced by inflection Since other cultures sometimes divide the differently, different scale patterns are produced. One very common example is the five-note, or pentatonic, scale found in some African, Asian, and Native American music. The music of some African cultures is tritonic, consisting of a three-note pattern. Some scales, especially those using microtones, are unplayable on Western instruments. These microtones are often produced via inflection (bending) of a main pitch.

The Major-Minor System
Tonic chord (I) built on first scale degree, point of rest Dominant chord (V) built on fifth scale degree, active chord, seeks to resolve to tonic Subdominant chord (IV) built on fourth scale degree Melodies have active and rest notes, and so do the harmonies that support them. A triad based on the tonic note is called the tonic chord (I) and is a point of rest. A triad built on the fifth scale degree is called the dominant chord (V) and is an active chord which seeks to resolve to the tonic. Another very common triad is built on the fourth scale degree and is called the subdominant chord (IV). These three triads are enough to harmonize many simple tunes, such as Battle Hymn of the Republic.

The Key as a Form-Building Element
Tonic, Dominant, Subdominant the three main chords of a musical work Keys can change via modulation Moving an entire work to another key is called transposition Composers use the harmonic system to give coherent shape and meaning to their works The three main chords of a musical work – tonic, dominant, and subdominant—are the foundations over which melodies and harmonic progressions unfold. Contrast between keys adds variety. Composers change keys during a piece via a process called modulation. Moving an entire work to another key is called transposition.

Chapter 5: Musical Texture 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 5: Musical Texture
● Texture refers to the interweaving of the melodic lines with harmony. ● The simplest texture is monophony, a single voice or line without accompaniment. ● Polyphony describes a many-voiced texture with different melodic lines, based on counterpoint—one line set against another. ● Homophony occurs when one melodic voice is prominent over the accompanying lines or voices. ● Imitation—when a melodic idea is presented in one voice, then restated in another—is a common unifying technique in polyphony; canons and rounds are two types of strictly imitative works.

Types of Texture Monophony: single “voice”
Heterophony: multiple versions of a melody heard simultaneously Polyphony: two or more different melodic lines combined, based on counterpoint Homophony: single melody of interest, subordinate accompaniment Homorhythm: homophony where all the “voices” move in the same rhythm Melodic lines may be thought of as the various threads that make up the fabric, or texture, of a piece. The simplest texture has a single “voice” or melody with no accompaniment or other melodic lines. This is called monophony. When multiple versions of a melody are heard simultaneously, as in “When the Saints Go Marching In,” the texture is called heterophony. Polyphony is a texture in which two or more melodic lines are heard simultaneously. The combination of these lines is based on the procedures of counterpoint. The most familiar texture is homophony, in which there is a single main melody, and the other parts are subordinate accompaniment. Homorhythm is a type of homophony in which all the voices move in the same rhythm (but there is still a discernable main melody, as in hymn singing.

Contrapuntal Devices Imitation: melodic idea presented in one voice and restated in another Canon: a strictly imitative work Round: a type of canon in which each voice enters in succession with the same melody (as in “Row, Row, Row Your Boat”) When combining several independent lines in polyphony one technique to give unity and shape is imitation: a melodic idea is presented in one voice and then restated in another. While the imitating voice states the melody, the first voice continues with new material. Imitation may be brief or last for an entire work. A strictly imitative texture is called canon, and the most familiar is a round, in which each voice enters in succession with the same melody (as in “Row Row Row Your Boat”).

Musical Texture and the Listener
Different textures require different kinds of listening Monophonic a single focus Homophonic / homorhythmic most familiar Polyphonic requires more experience Different textures require different types of listening. Monophonic music has one focus—a single line of melody. With homophonic/homorhythmic music the primary focus is the main melody, with subordinate accompaniment. We have heard this type of texture since childhood in traditional and popular song. Polyphonic music’s multiple simultaneous melodic lines requires more experienced listening, but a good place to start is with the round. With practice, hearing the individual voices and how they relate gets easier.

Chapter 6: Musical Form 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 6: Musical Form ● Form is the organizing principle in music; its basic elements are repetition, contrast, and variation. ● Strophic form, common in songs, features repeated music for each stanza of text. In through-composed form, there are no large repeated sections. ● Binary form (AB) and ternary form (ABA) are basic structures in music. ● A theme, a melodic idea in a largescale work, can be broken into small, component fragments (motives). A sequence results when a motive is repeated at a different pitch. ● Many cultures use callandresponse (or responsorial) music, a repetitive style involving a soloist and a group. Some music is created spontaneously in performance, through improvisation. ● An ostinato is the repetition of a short melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic pattern. ● Large-scale compositions, such as symphonies and sonatas, are divided into sections, or movements.

Musical Form Form refers to the way the elements of a composition are combined to make it understandable Balance between unity and variety Form refers to the way the elements of a composition are combined to make it understandable. In art as in nature, a balance is required between unity and variety, symmetry and asymmetry, activity and rest.

Structure and Design in Music
Repetition and Contrast the basic elements Strophic form vs. Through-composed Variation form: some aspects of the music are altered, but original remains recognizable Improvisation: pieces created spontaneously in performance Repetition and contrast are the basic elements of form in most cultures, satisfying our need for the familiar and the new. One common structure for vocal music is strophic form, in which the same melody is repeated for each stanza of text. With through-composed form, no main section of the music or text is repeated. In variation form, some aspects of the music are altered, but the original remains recognizable. Musical forms should not be understood as fixed molds; what makes pieces unique is the way in which a composer adapts a general plan to make something individual. Performers sometimes also participate in shaping a composition through improvisation; even works made up on-the-spot have some sort of underlying structure.

Chapter 6: Musical Form

Binary and Ternary Form
Binary (two-part) contains a statement and a departure Outlined as A-B Ternary (three-part) contains a statement, a departure, and a return Outlined as A-B-A Two basic structures are widespread in art and music. Binary (two-part) contains a statement and a departure, with no return to the opening section. It is outlined as A-B. Ternary (three-part) contains a statement, a departure, and a return to the opening section. It is outlined as A-B-A

The Building Blocks of Form
Theme: a melodic idea used as the building block for a larger work The expansion of a theme is called thematic development Sequence restates a theme at a higher or lower pitch level Motives are smaller units of a theme Call-and-response (responsorial) Ostinato Movements When a melodic idea is used as a building block in the construction of a larger work, we call it a theme. The expansion of a theme by varying its melody, rhythm, or harmony, is considered thematic development. Thematic development is a complex process generally found in larger forms of music, where it provides clarity, coherence, and logic. One procedure for helping music flow logically is repetition, either exact or varied. If the idea is restated at a higher or lower pitch level, the restatement is called a sequence. Themes are often divisible into smaller melodic-rhythmic units that can be developed independently; these are called motives. Whatever the form of length of a piece, at its core is repetition and contrast. One practice heard throughout the world is call-and-response (or responsorial) music. In this practice a singing leader is imitated or answered by a chorus of followers. Another widely used procedure is ostinato, in which a short musical pattern is repeated throughout a work or major section of a piece. Composition is organic, with notes bound together yielding phrases, phrases yielding themes, themes yielding sections, sections yielding movements (a complete, comparatively independent division of a large-scale work), and movements yielding the work as a whole.

Chapter 6: Musical Form

Chapter 7: Musical Expression: Tempo and Dynamics 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 7: Musical Expression: Tempo and Dynamics
● Tempo is the rate of speed, or pace, of the music. ● We use Italian terms to designate musical tempo: some of the most familiar are allegro (fast), moderato (moderate), adagio (quite slow), accelerando (speeding up), and ritardando (slowing down). ● Dynamics describe the volume, or how loud or soft the music is played; Italian terms for dynamics include forte (loud) and piano (soft). ● Composers indicate tempo and dynamics as a means of expression.

The Pace of Music Speed of underlying beats determines tempo
Connection between tempo and mood Tempo markings Grave, largo, adagio, andante, moderato, allegro, vivace, presto Modifiers molto, meno, poco, non troppo Accelerando, ritardando, a tempo Most Western music has steady, underlying beats. The relative speed of these beats determines the tempo of the music. A brisk tempo might be associated with gaiety, while a slow one with despair. Because of the connection between tempo and mood, tempo markings can indicate the character of a piece as well as its speed. The use of Italian to indicate tempo reflects the dominance of Italian music in Europe when the tradition of providing such performance directions was established. Some of the most common tempo markings are: Grave: solemn (very, very slow); largo: broad (very slow); adagio: quite slow; andante: walking pace; moderato: moderate; allegro: fast (cheerful); vivace: lively; presto: very fast. Modifiers such as molto (very), meno (less), poco (a little), and non troppo (not too much) are also frequently encountered. Change of tempo is sometimes indicated by accelerando (getting faster); ritardando (getting slower), and a tempo (back to the original pace).

Loudness and Softness Dynamics refers to loudness or softness
Affects emotional response Pianissimo, piano, mezzopiano, mezzoforte, forte, fortissimo pp, p, mp, mf, f, ff Crescendo, decrescendo (diminuendo) Dynamics denote the volume at which music is played. The loudness or softness of a portion of music can affect our emotional response to it. The main dynamic indications are based on the Italian words for soft (piano) and loud (forte). Pianissimo (pp): very soft; piano (p): soft; mezzopiano (mp): moderately soft; mezzoforte (mf): moderately loud; forte (f): loud; fortissimo (ff) very loud Changes of dynamics are indicated by words or signs: crescendo (growing louder); decrescendo, diminuendo (growing softer).

Tempo and Dynamics as Elements of Expression
Composers add tempo and dynamic markings to shape expressive content Indications somewhat imprecise, up to performers to interpret Composers add tempo and dynamic markings to shape the expressive content of the music. The number of expression markings has increased steadily since the late eighteenth century. Despite composers’ efforts to make their intents known as much as possible, the common indications for tempo and dynamics are somewhat imprecise, leaving it up to performers to interpret what exactly is meant in a particular context.

Chapter 8: Music and Words 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 8: Music and Words
● A song’s text can convey the meaning of the words or simply sounds. Some composers use the voice as an instrument, as in vocalise (melodies sung on a neutral sound like “ah”) or scat-singing in jazz (to made-up syllables). ● Secular (nonreligious) music is generally sung in the language of the people (the vernacular). Much Western sacred (religious) music is in Latin, the language of the Roman Catholic Church. ● Composers may set an already-written text to music, or, as in opera and musical theater, work together with lyricists as a songwriting team. ● Each syllable of a song text may get one note (syllabic setting); one syllable may get a few notes (neumatic setting); or one syllable may get many notes (melismatic setting). ● Composers use word-painting to emphasize the text, perhaps with a drawnout word over many notes (melisma) or with a melody that pictorializes a word.

Music and Words Non-lexical syllables: do not communicate meaning
Scat singing, vocalise Wide variety of languages encountered Sometimes melody first, sometimes text Stanzas (strophes) Refrain (chorus) Syllabic, melismatic, neumatic Word painting There are many facets to consider with music that has a text (lyrics). First, does the text communicate meaning that can be understood, or are they non-lexical, like scat singing or vocalise (both wordless melodies). Throughout our study, we will encounter music with texts in a wide variety of languages other than English. You will hear most selections sung in their original language, since a sung translation will never fit the musical line as well as the original words. Many composers select an existing poem to set to music, in which case the text clearly came first. In other situations, composers come up with a melody first and add words that fit. A third situation arises when composers and lyricists work as a team to come up with the finished product. The text of a song may help organize the tune. Poems are often written in stanzas or strophes, yielding the very common strophic form when set to music. Songs might also feature a refrain or chorus, words and music that recur after each stanza. The simplest way words and melody can fit together is for each syllable to be set to one note, a one-to-one match known as syllabic. The opposite of that is melismatic, in which a single syllable is elongated by many notes. A middle ground, in which there are a few notes per syllable, is called neumatic. The technique of using the musical setting to depict the meaning of a word is called word painting.

Chapter 8: Music and Words

Chapter 9: Voices and Instrument Families 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 9: Voices and Instrument Families
● Properties of sound include pitch, duration, volume, and timbre, or tone color. ● An instrument generates vibrations and transmits them into the air. ● The human voice can be categorized into various ranges, including soprano and alto for female voices, and tenor and bass for male voices. ● The world instrument classification system divides into aerophones (such as flutes or horns), chordophones (violins or guitars), idiophones (bells or cymbals), and membranophones (drums).

Musical Timbre Timbre (tone color) accounts for the differences in the sound quality of musical instruments Timbre (tone color) accounts for the differences in the sound quality of musical instruments. Timbre is influenced by a number of factors, such as the size and shape of the instrument, the material from which it is made, and the manner in which the vibration is produced.

The Voice as Instrument
All cultures enjoy some sort of vocal music Vocal ranges: soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, tenor, baritone, bass All cultures enjoy some sort of vocal music, and the human voice is the most natural of all musical instruments. The standard designations for vocal ranges, from highest to lowest, is soprano, mezzo-soprano, and alto for female voices; and tenor, baritone, and bass for male voices. Throughout the ages, the human voice has served as a model for instrument builders, composers, and players.

The World of Musical Instruments
Enormous diversity around the world Classification categories: Aerophones Chordophones Idiophones Membranophones There is enormous diversity in the musical instruments played throughout the world. A comprehensive list would be impossible. Specialists have devised a method of classifying instruments based solely on the way their sound is generated. There are four basic categories: Aerophones produce sound by using air (examples include flutes, whistles, trumpets, and bagpipes). Chordophones produce sound from a vibrating string stretched between two points (examples include violin, guitar, hammered dulcimer, erhu). Idiophones produce sound from the substance itself, which can be struck, scraped, or shaken. Membranophones are sounded from tightly stretched membranes which can be struck, plucked, rubbed, or sung into to set the membrane vibrating (drums are a good example).

Chapter 10: Western Musical Instruments 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 10: Western Musical Instruments
● The four families of Western instruments are strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion. ● String instruments (chordophones) are sounded by bowing and plucking. Bowed strings include the violin, viola, cello, and double bass; plucked strings include the harp and guitar. ● Woodwind instruments (aerophones) include the flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and saxophone. ● Brass instruments (aerophones) include the trumpet, French horn, trombone, and tuba. ● Percussion instruments include idiophones (xylophone, cymbals, triangle) and membranophones (timpani, bass drum); some are pitched (chimes), while others are unpitched (tambourine). ● Keyboard instruments, such as the piano and organ, do not fit neatly into the Western classification system.

Western Musical Instruments
Four traditional categories: Strings Woodwinds Brass Percussion Not all instruments fit neatly into these The instruments of the Western world (especially those of the orchestra) can be grouped into four categories: strings, woodwinds, brass, and percussion. Some instruments do not fit well into these categories, such as the piano.

String Instruments Chordophones Bowed Plucked
Violin, viola, cello, double bass Plucked Harp, guitar Banjo, mandolin The string family are all chordophones, and include two types: those that are bowed and those that are plucked. The bowed-string family has four principal members: violin, viola, cello, double bass. Two popular plucked-string instruments are the harp and the guitar. Related to the guitar are traditional instruments such as the banjo and mandolin.

Woodwind Instruments Aerophones
Column of air vibrating within a pipe that has fingerholes along its length Not necessarily made of wood, variety of methods for setting up vibration Mouth hole, single reed, double reed Flute, piccolo Oboe, English horn Clarinet, Bass clarinet Bassoon, Contrabassoon Saxophone Aerophones produce sound with a column of air vibrating within a pipe that has fingerholes along its length. When those holes are opened or closed, the length of the vibrating air column is changed. Nowadays woodwind instruments are not necessarily made of wood, and they employ a variety of methods for setting up vibration: blowing across a mouth hole, blowing into a mouthpiece with a single reed, or blowing into a mouthpiece fitted with a double reed. The holes in their pipes are the important feature they have in common. The flute is the soprano voice of the woodwind family. It is usually made of a metal alloy today, and consists of a cylindrical tube closed at one end that is held horizontally. The player blows across a mouth hole cut in the side of the pipe near the closed end. The piccolo is a miniature flute, and is the highest pitched instrument in the orchestra. The oboe is made of wood, and the player blows directly into a double reed, two thin pieces of cane bound together with a thin passage for air. The English horn is an alto oboe. The clarinet uses a single reed, a thin piece of cane fastened to a chisel-shaped mouthpiece. The bass clarinet is pitched one octave lower than the clarinet. The bassoon is also a double-reed instrument, sounding weighty in the low register and intense in the upper. The contrabassoon sounds an octave below the bassoon. The saxophone is a single-reed instrument developed in It is only occasionally used in orchestras, but is the characteristic instrument of the jazz band.

Brass Instruments Aerophones Trumpet French Horn Trombone Tuba
Cup-shaped mouthpieces, length of metal tubing, bell flare at end Column of air set in motion by buzzing lips of the player Trumpet French Horn Trombone Tuba Cornet, bugle, flügelhorn (or fluegelhorn), euphonium, sousaphone Brass instruments are aerophones, and all have cup-shaped mouthpieces, a length of metal tubing, and a bell flare at the end. The column of air is set in motion by the buzzing lips of the player inside the mouthpiece. Trumpets and horns were prevalent in the ancient world, often made from animal horns and tusks. Today they are made of metal alloys. The trumpet is the highest member of the brass family, with a brilliant, clear timbre. The French horn descended from the ancient hunting horn and has a mellow sound. The trombone is distinctive in its employment of a movable U-shaped tube that alters the length of the instrument (the other brasses use valves to change the length of the tubing). The tuba is the largest of the brass instruments and is therefore the bass of the family. Other brass instruments found outside the orchestra include the cornet, bugle, flügelhorn (fluegelhorn), euphonium, and sousaphone.

Percussion Instruments
Idiophones and membranophones Definite and indefinite pitch Timpani (kettledrums) Xylophone, marimba, vibraphone Snare drum, bass drum, tom-tom (or tam-tam) Castanets, triangle, cymbals The percussion family is made up of a vast array of idiophones and membranophones, and is divided into two categories: those of definite pitch and those of indefinite pitch. Definite pitch instruments include the timpani, tunable membranaphones generally played in sets of four; the xylophone, marimba, and vibraphone, all idiophones consisting of tuned blocks of wood (or metal, in the case of the vibraphone) laid out like a piano keyboard and struck with a mallet. Membranophones of indefinite pitch include the snare drum, the bass drum, and the tom-toms. Idiophones of indefinite pitch include castanets, triangle, and cymbals.

Keyboard Instruments Piano Organ Harpsichord
Strings struck by hammer mechanism Organ Air blown through pipes Or electronic Harpsichord Strings plucked by mechanism The piano has a wide dynamic range and capacity for nuance. Its strings are struck by hammers controlled by the keyboard mechanism. The organ is one of the earliest keyboard instruments and is technically an aerophone. Air flow to each of its many pipes is controlled from a console containing two or more keyboards. Pressing a key allows air to pass through a specific pipe, thus producing a sound. Harpsichords were much used in the Baroque era. Its strings are plucked by quills controlled by the keyboard mechanism.

Chapter 11: Musical Ensembles 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 11: Musical Ensembles
● Choral groups often feature a cappella singing, with no accompaniment. ● Chamber music is ensemble music for small groups, with one player per part. ● Standard chamber ensembles include string quartets, piano trios, and brass quintets. ● The modern orchestra can feature over one hundred players. ● Most bands—wind, marching, jazz, rock—feature a core of winds and percussion. ● Large ensembles are generally led by a conductor who beats patterns with a baton to help performers keep the same tempo.

Musical Ensembles Wide variety of ensembles
Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous The great variety in musical instruments is matched by a wide assortment of ensembles, or performance groups. Some groups are homogeneous, consisting of instruments from the same family, while others are heterogeneous, featuring instruments from different families.

Choral Groups Chorus, Choir SATB A cappella: without accompaniment
Choral music is sung around the world, both for sacred and secular occasions. A chorus is a large body of singers whose music is sung in several voice parts. Choirs are typically smaller. The standard voice parts in both are soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. Choral music is often performed a cappella, without accompaniment.

Chamber Ensembles Groups of two to about twelve, one player per part
String quartet, quintet Duo sonata Piano trio, quartet, quintet Sextet, septet, octet Woodwind and brass quintets Chamber music is ensemble music for a group of two to twelve players, with one player per part. The essential trait of chamber music is its intimacy. Several standard chamber music ensembles consist of string players: String quartet: 2 violins, viola, cello String quintet: 2 violins, viola, cello, bass The duo sonata features a soloist with a keyboard instrument. Piano trios, quartets and quintets combine one piano with stringed instruments. Larger ensembles include sextets, septets, and octets. Brass quintets feature 2 trumpets, French horn, trombone, and tuba. Woodwind quintets add the French horn to an ensemble with one each of flute, oboe, clarinet, and bassoon.

The Orchestra In a general sense, any performing body of diverse instruments Term now synonymous with symphony orchestra Varies in size and makeup throughout history String instruments always core Also woodwinds, brass, and percussion In a general sense, the term “orchestra” may be applied to any performing body of diverse instruments. In the West, the term is now synonymous with symphony orchestra, an ensemble of strings coupled with an assortment of woodwinds, brass, and percussion. The symphony orchestra has varied in size and makeup throughout history, but always with stringed instruments at its core.

Wind, Jazz, and Rock Bands
“Band” refers to a variety of ensembles Most rely on winds and percussion Wind band, concert band, marching band Jazz band Reed section (saxes), brass (trumpets, trombones), rhythm (percussion, bass, piano, guitar) Rock band Amplified guitars, synthesizers, percussion Sometimes other winds and brass Band is a generic name applied to a variety of ensembles, most of which rely on winds and percussion. In the United States, wind bands, concert bands, and marching bands are established institutions in colleges and secondary schools across the country. The makeup of jazz bands depends on the particular music being played, but usually consists of a reed section made up mostly of saxophones, a brass section made up of trumpets and trombones, and a rhythm section consisting of percussion, bass, piano, and guitar. Rock bands often supplement amplified guitars, percussion, and synthesizers. Sometimes this is augmented by winds and brass.

The Role of the Conductor
Large ensembles often need a leader: the conductor Keeps time with baton Gestures aid interpretation of expression Concertmaster (first-chair violinist) standardizes bow-strokes Large ensembles often need a conductor, who serves as the group’s leader. The conductor beats time in standard patters to help the performers keep tempo. Many conductors use a thin stick called a baton. The conductor also interprets the music for the group, communicating these decisions through gestures. String players also depend on the concertmaster to standardize their bow-strokes so the interpretation is uniform.

The Orchestra in Action
Britten, Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra (1946) Based on a theme by Purcell Audio link to Purcell Rondeau Introduces sound of orchestra all together, then each instrument family; individual instruments in order from high to low Benjamin Britten’s Young Person’s Guide to the Orchestra (1946) was specifically written to introduce the instruments of the orchestra. The work is a series of variations on a theme by Purcell. Britten first introduces the sound of the orchestra all together, followed by each instrument family. The individual instruments within each family are presented in order from highest to lowest.

Chapter 12: Style and Function of Music in Society 12TH EDITION by Kristine Forney Andrew Dell’Antonio Joseph Machlis

Chapter 12: Style and Function of Music in Society
● Most cultures around the world employ sacred music for religious functions, and secular music for entertainment and other nonreligious activities. ● There are many genres, or categories, of music; some works cross over categories, borrowing elements of one genre for use in another. ● The medium is the specific group (e.g., orchestra, chorus) that performs a piece. ● Some music is not written down, but is known through oral transmission. ● The distinctive features of any artwork make up its style. A musical style is created through individual treatment of the basic musical elements. ● We organize styles of artworks into historical periods, each with its own characteristics.

Style and Function of Music in Society
Sacred vs. Secular music Genre: overall character of a work, its function, and its medium Context and aesthetics vary from culture to culture Notation vs. Oral transmission “Cultivated” vs. Vernacular music Music is interwoven into the lives and beliefs of people all over the globe. Its functions, performance traditions, and occasions vary widely, and genres do not always translate easily from one culture to another. In most cultures, however, we can distinguish between sacred music (for worship) and secular music (for entertainment). It’s important to differentiate between genre and form. “Genre” is a general term that suggests something about the overall character of a work, its function and medium. “Form” refers specifically to the music’s structure. Just as the contexts for music vary from culture to culture, so do aesthetic judgments – for example, the preferred vocal timbre. Most of the world’s music is not written down in notation and is passed along from person to person via a process called oral transmission. Most of the music discussed in this book is from the Western art music tradition. This music is often labeled as “classical” or “serious”, for lack of better terms. The actual lines, however, between “cultivated” and vernacular music are not quite so clear-cut.

The Concept of Style Style: the characteristic way an artwork is presented Also the creator’s personal manner of expression Style is made up of pitch, time, timbre, and expression, creating a sound that each culture recognizes as its own Style is the characteristic way an artwork is presented. Yet the term also refers to the creator’s personal manner of expression—what sets one artist apart from all others. Style is made up of pitch, time, timbre, and expression, creating a sound that each culture recognizes as its own.

Musical Styles in History
Each historical period has its own stylistic characteristics Total language of all of its artists Knowledge of historical styles helps to place works within their contexts Middle Ages, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic, twentieth-century and beyond Each historical period has its own stylistic characteristics, which are made up of the total language of all of its artists. A knowledge of historical styles helps to place works within their contexts. Historical style periods in Western music are typically broken down thusly: Middle Ages, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic, twentieth-century and beyond.

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