1. Cognition: Memory

3. Multi-store Model of Memory
Explanation of how memory processes work. You hear, see, and feel many things, but only a small number are remembered.

4. How memories form and how we lose them

5. How Does Memory Work? Encoding, Storage, & Retrieval
Processes by which we:
Get info in – Encoding
Hang on to it – Storage
Get it back out – Retrieval

6. Name the 7 Dwarfs
Write each name in your notes on a piece of paper

8. Was this difficult for you?
Depends on the factors…
Do you like disney movies?
How long ago did you watch the movie?
How loud or distracting were the people around you when you were trying to remember?

10. Why do we have trouble finding the real penny?
There is no need to know the details other than color, size and feel!

11. Sensory Memory
What: First response of our senses to external stimuli Ex) quick picture or sound  Sensory Registers: Iconic Memory Echoic Memory Visual: ¼ a second Auditory: Few seconds

13. Encoding
Information from environment is encoded when it enters body through the senses.
Visual, Acoustic, and Semantic encoding
Visual is most effective, but most successful way is to encode in all 3 ways.
Requires ATTENTION! – which is why you may not be able to recall exactly what a penny looks like
Selective Attention: critical to everyday functioning.
If your attention were distributed equally among all stimulus inputs, life would be utter chaos.

14. Encoding Effortful and Automatic Processing
Effortful Processing
What: type of encoding that requires attention and some degree of conscious effort.
This deals with any type of studying or way to remember something.
Automatic Processing
What: deals with our unconscious encoding of incidental information.
Examples would be time, space, and frequency

15. Semantic Encoding
What: the processing and encoding of sensory input that has particular meaning or can be applied to a context, rather than deriving from a particular sense. Examples: Chunking and mnemonics aid in semantic encoding;. For example, you might remember a particular phone number based on a person's name or a particular food by its color

16. Storage – maintaining encoded info in memory over time
Sensory Memory
Short-Term Memory STM
Long-Term Memory LTM
STM (working memory) Limit not only on number of items it can hold, but also on duration (20 seconds or so)
Use of rehearsal helps to increase the likelihood that memories will be recalled.
LTM is divided into explicit memories (knowing facts) and implicit memories (remembering how to move your body when walking)
Tip-of-the-Tongue: Forgotten information feels like it’s just out of reach… this phenomenon shows, info storage isn’t enough to guarantee that you’ll remember something

17. Retrieval
Key to accessing information from LTM is to have an appropriate retrieval cue. Mnemonics: memory aid that relies on reorganization of information for easy retrieval Encoding Specificity: Retrieval is better when context in which we are trying to retrieve something matches context in which it was learned.

18. Short-Term Memory aka working memory
Holds information we are aware of or thinking about at any given moment

19. Capacity of Short-Term Memory
Demo:
Concepts: The majority of the class was limited to 7 +/-2 bits of information as a result of our short-term memory capacity
Who: George Miller “Miller’s Magic Number”
Research indicates that STM (short-term memory) can hold 7 +/- 2 bits of information
*Whatever is rehearsed in seconds.
Feats of memory anyone can do

20. STM Improvement: Chunking
Demo:
Concepts: STM capacity can be “expanded” to include more bits of information through chunking ( = 1776 | 2015)
Organizing items into similar, manageable units
Can expand capacity of short-term memory =

21. Improving Memory Encoding Storage Retrieval Chunking
Serial Position Effect
Theory of Deep Processing
Rote Rehearsal
Storage
Decay Theory
Spacing Effect
Elaborative Rehearsal
Method of Loci
Link Method
Retrieval
Retrieval Cues
Interference
Retroactive and Proactive

22. Chunking
As previously demonstrated

23. Serial Position Effect
People tend to recall the first items and the last items in a list First: primacy effect (shows LTM ) Last: recency effect (shows STM)

24. Spacing
Spacing Effect: Information, which is presented over spaced intervals, is learned and retained more easily and more effectively When remembering things in a list, if your reviews are farther apart in time, it is more beneficial than if it is repeated over a short period of time

25. Peg-words
Peg-word system is a technique that involves linking words with numbers
The numbers and words often tend to rhyme.

26. Theory of Deep Processing
Shallow Processing
Deep Processing
EX.
Encoding based on structure or appearance of words
Encoding based on the meaning of words 
Making information meaningful
* Yields better retention

27. Rote Rehearsal
Saying information “over and over again”  “Okay” for short-term memory Terrible for long-term memory *You need intent to form long-term memory

28. Decay Theory
Argues: The passage of time causes forgetting Spacing Effect: distributing rehearsal is better than practicing all at once – limits decay theory Ex. Memorizing a poem in 1/5ths as opposed to all at once.

29. Elaborative Rehearsal
Relating new information to information that is already stored in memory  Meaning is assigned to new information and then linked to as much existing knowledge as possible.

30. Method of Loci
Required memorization of a building (ex. Your home, KPHS) Subject mentally associates items or concepts with distinct locations - During Retrieval: Subject mentally walks through the building

31. Link Method
Imagine a silly image that represents the type of list you want to remember  Then think of an image that links the first on the list to the second and so on

32. Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. Priming: To retrieve a specific memory -First activate one strand that leads to it Ex) seeing or hearing the word rabbit  Activates concept of rabbit in mind  Primes spelling the spoken word hair/hare as h-a-r-e.

33. Interference
Retroactive and Proactive Both interfere with learning or remembering information. PROACTIVE. OLD. interferes with new RETROACTIVE. NEW. interferes with old P.O.R.N.

34. Retroactive Interference
*Retro means old New information interferes with old information Ex) Learning Spanish today interferes with the French you learned before.

35. Proactive Interference
Old information in LTM interferes with new information Ex.) French you learned last year interferes with your current study of Spanish.

37. Organization of Long Term Memory
Explicit Memory (Declarative) – information that you are aware “Knowing What” Includes: facts, events *Can be divided into Episodic and Semantic Implicit (Procedural) – Influences your behavior but for which you have no conscious awareness “Knowing How”

38. Priming
What: Priming is the implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus. It is a technique in psychology used to train a person's memory both in positive and negative ways.

39. Explicit or Declarative Memory
Implicit Memory

41. Pick out the names of the 7 dwarfs.
Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Puffy Dopey Spiffy Wishful Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Sporty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poppy

43. Did you do better on the 1st or 2nd dwarf memory exercise?
Recall vs Recognition: Recall- you must retrieve the info from your memory (fill-in-the blank tests) Recognition – you must identify the target from possible targets (multiple choice)

44. Physiology of Memory

45. Process Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
What: Strengthening of a synaptic connection that happens when the synapse of one neuron repeatedly fires and excites another neuron.
Hebb’s Rule – Neurons that fire together wire together
Increased efficiency of potential neural firing
Research has shown:
Connection between enhanced LTP and improved memory
If LTP is in block via drugs, interferes with learning

46. Brain Structures
Explicit Memory (Declarative) – information that you are aware
Includes: facts, events
Hippocampus
Function: turning STM to LTM
Saving Explicit Memory
Evidence: Damage to hippocampus in Alzheimer’s patients  difficulty forming new memories

47. Brain Structures Implicit Memory Procedural Memory (ex. Riding a bike)
Research shows:
Basal ganglia
Emotional Memory (ex. Associating dentist office with drilling)
Cerebellum

48. Special Topics in Memory

49. Forgetting Topics we already discussed: Decay theory
Encoding failure (ex. Shallow processing)
Interference
Amnesia
Anterograde
Inability to form new memories
Retrograde
Inability to retrieve information from the past

50. Special Forms Eidetic Memory “Photographic memory”
Usually due to well developed memory techniques
Highly debated subject
Flashbulb Memories
Vivid memories of a dramatic event
(ex. 9/11, Boston Marathon Bombing, etc)

51. Context
Location
We recall more when in the same context of where we learned it
Mood
Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s modd
Ex) feeling sad makes you think about sad memories

52. Schema
Concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

53. Eyewitness Testimony
Shown to be unreliable (although convincing in court)
Memory is reconstructed (ex. Using schema)
Recall Eyewitness testimony influenced by:
Misinformation effect (misleading questions)
Forgetting
Failure to encode
Ex.) Selective Attention - basketball

54. Misinformation Effect
Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
Just because someone thinks they remember something in detail, with confidence and with emotion, does not mean that it actually happened. … False memories have these characteristics too.

55. Source Misattribution
Forgetting or misrecalling the source of a memory.

56. Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve

57. Prospective vs Retrospective
The most common type of retrospective memory is retrospective episodic memory, or memory of events which personally occurred or were personally experienced in the past of an individual.
Prospective – “Remembering to Remember” – going to the dr at 4pm, remembering to post a letter(action) after seeing a mailbox (cue)

58. Superior Autobiographical Memory Hyperthymesia
Jill Price – First!
She is able to recite details of every day of her life since age 14.
Dr. James McGaugh: By stimulating the amygdala in rats, McGaugh has learned more about how we can enhance memory.
Stimulated amygdala that emulates stress hormones that help memories become more firmly fixed and retained.
Without amygdala, all of our memories would be remembered equally.
Endless Memory

59. Memory- How it Works
Amygdala: Small almond shaped region of the brain near hippocampus; responsible for this enhanced memory. Men: Right amygdala – more active. More likely to remember gist of emotional events Women: Left amygdala – more active. More likely to remember details of emotional event. .