1. To enhance your writing
Grammar Rules
To enhance your writing

2. Parts of Speech
Preposition – Tells where something takes place ('at' the store), when or why something takes place ('before' dinner), or general descriptive information (the girl 'with' the cool shoes). Exceptions are the words “of” and “for”. A prepositional phrase always ends with a noun (he went to the store).
Pronoun - A word that takes the place of a noun, noun phrase, or noun clause. A pronoun can function as a subject, object, or complement in a sentence. Examples: Anything, each, ourselves, that, these, whatever, nothing, most…

3. Parts of Speech continued
Interjection - Most commonly used in informal language rather than in formal writing or speech. Function is to express emotions or sudden bursts of feelings. Is in the form of a single word, a phrase, or even a short clause. If it needs a lot of emphasis, add an exclamation mark after. If not, as in a form paper, just use commas. Examples: Sweet! I got a PS4 for my birthday! Holy cow! I forgot my keys! Shawie is our chemistry teacher. Oh, the horror!
Examples for formal essays: Well, some may claim that Iago was not truly an evil character… Or… Othello does, in fact, treat Desdemona horribly throughout most of the play.
Conjunction - the part of speech used as a “joiner” for words, phrases, or clauses in a particular sentence. Examples: “I was trying to daydream, but my mind kept wandering.” "A life spent making mistakes is not only more honorable but more useful than a life spent doing nothing.“

4. Appositive Phrase
a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun right beside it and is separated from the main sentence with commas.
Its main purpose is to give the reader more detail about the noun it modifies.
Example: The insect, a large cockroach with hairy legs, is crawling across the kitchen table.
Example: Queen Victoria, one of England's greatest monarchs, ruled for sixty-three years.
Please write your own example in your notes.

5. Participle Phrases
A participle phrase is an adjective and begins with a participle word (usually ending in “ing” and will less likely end in “ed”).
It is located directly after or directly before the noun it modifies.
In other words, it is used to describe the noun it follows.
Example: Is that Arthur running for the bus?
Example: You could see the panther releasing its grip.
Please write your own example in your notes.
Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after the phrase.
Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed.
If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off with commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.
Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas should be used:
The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award.

6. Punctuation is Powerful!
An English professor wrote the words…
“A woman without her man is nothing.”
All of the males in the class wrote:
“A woman, without her man, is nothing.”
All of the females wrote:
“A woman: without her, man is nothing.”

7. Gerund Phrase
Begins with an ing word, and usually functions as a noun that is the subject in the sentence, unlike the participle phrase. Therefore, it is not separated by commas.
Example: Eating ice cream on a windy day can be a messy experience if you have long, untamed hair.
Example: Bill decided that scrambling over the pile of debris was not safe. (Scrambling serves as the subject to this sentence).
Please write your own example in your notes.

8. Infinitive Phrase
A verb plus any complements (direct object) and/or modifiers (adverb)
Example: He likes to knead the dough slowly when making pizza.
Example: The teacher stayed after school to help her students.
Please write your own example and identify the direct object and modifier if necessary.

9. Simple Sentence
Simple sentences are different from other sentences types because they contain only one independent clause, and have no dependent clauses. This type of sentence may also contain the phrases discussed in previous slides
Example: The coaches and administration were pleased to announce the results of the game
Example: I love to read simples sentences upon getting up and before going to bed.
Example: Eating cotton candy on a windy day can be a very sticky experience!
Please write your own example using two different types of phrases

10. Compound Sentence
A compound sentence is a sentence that has at least two independent clauses joined by a comma, semicolon, or conjunction.
Example: The real Oz, the man behind the curtain, was neither great nor powerful; the story portrays an ineffective president as a bumbling wizard.
Please write your own example using a complex conjunction with a semi colon and a comma

11. Compound-Complex Sentences
A compound-complex sentence is made from two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
1. Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time to go lately, and I haven't found anyone to go with me yet. (underline each independent clause and circle the dependent clause)
2. We decided that the movie was too violent, but our children, who like to watch scary movies, thought that we were wrong. (underline each independent clause and circle the dependent clause)

12. Elements of a Complex Sentence with an Adjective Clause
First, it will contain a subject and verb and can have phrases
Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which]
Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering the questions: What kind? How many? or Which one?
You can always take the clause out of the sentence and still have a perfectly-written sentence left.
(Note: when using an adjective clause, only place commas around the clause if it is NOT essential to the meaning of the sentence)
Example: Diane felt manipulated by her beagle Santana, whose big, brown eyes pleaded for another cookie.
Example: Growling ferociously, the two dogs competed for the hardboiled egg that bounced across the kitchen floor.
Example: Please write your own example here for an adjective clause

13. Elements of a Complex Sentence with an Adverb Clause
An adverb clause will meet three requirements:
1. It will contain both a subject and verb and may contain phrases
2. You will also find a subordinate conjunction that keeps the clause from expressing a complete thought.
Most popular ones: Since When If Although Because Even though
(Note: when a sentence begins with an adverb clause, you MUST put a comma after the clause and before the main sentence. However, when a sentence contains an adverb clause later in the sentence, you do not use a comma after the main sentence and before the clause begins)
3. The clause answers one of these four questions: How? When? Where? or Why?
Example: Tommy scrubbed the bathroom tile until his arms ached.
How did Tommy scrub? Until his arms ached, an adverb clause.
Example: After her appointment at the orthodontist, Danielle cooked eggs for dinner because she could easily chew an omelet.
Example: Please write your own complex sentence that begins with an adjective clause

14. Relative Pronoun
A relative pronoun "relates" a clause to the rest of the sentence. It may be found in adjective and noun clauses.
Five relative pronoun words: that, which, who, whom, and whose
Example: People who speak two languages are called bilingual.
Example: The shirt that Carl bought has a stain on the pocket.
Please write your own example in your notes.

15. Types of Pronouns continued
Nominative (subjective) pronoun - acts as the subject of a sentence—it performs the action of the verb. The subjective pronouns are he, I, it, she, they, we, and you.
Example: He spends ages looking out the window.
Objective pronoun - acts as the object of a sentence—it receives the action of the verb. The objective pronouns are her, him, it, me, them, us, and you.
Example: Cousin Eldred gave me a trombone.
Possessive pronoun - tells you who owns something. The possessive pronouns are hers, his, its, mine, ours, theirs, and yours.
Example: The red basket is mine.

16. Adverbs Comparative adverb: compares two items
Superlative adverb: compares three or more items
Adverb: Comparative Superlative
quietly more quietly most quietly
slowly more slowly most slowly
bad worse worst
little less least
late later latest
fast faster fastest
Examples:
The little boy ran farther than his friends.
You're driving worse today than yesterday !
Example: Please write your own example here for a superlative adverb.

17. Connotation vs. Denotation
Connotation: the wide array of positive and negative associations that most words naturally carry with them
Example: love and romance
Denotation: the precise, literal definition of a word that might be found in a dictionary.
Example: a red flower with a green stem