APHG Review: Highlights for the APHG Exam AP Human Geography

APHG Review: Highlights for the APHG Exam AP Human Geography

Unit 2: POPULATION & MIGRATION MOVEMENT AND DIFFUSION

POPULATION 7.4 billion people Over 50% in urban areas

DENSITY Density – number of people per square mile
Agricultural - # of farmers per unit of arable land Physiological - # of people per unit of arable land

DISTRIBUTION The arrangement of something across Earth’s surface (clustered vs. dispersed)

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

COMPOSITION Pyramids – bar graph representing the distribution of population by age and sex

Population Pyramids Sudan, 2000 United States, 2000 Italy, 2000

POPULATION & NATURAL HAZARDS
Technology and Innovation Agricultural Revolution Industrial Revolution Medical Revolution Black Plague Irish Potato Famine World Wars AIDS

Vocabulary total fertility rate infant mortality rate life expectancy
Natural increase rate (BR-DR) doubling time dependency ratio pyramids carrying capacity

OVERPOPULATION Excessive population of an area to the point of overcrowding, depletion of natural resources, or environmental deterioration

Thomas Malthus What is the “carrying capacity” related to today?
British economist in 1798 Population limited by the means of food production Population will increase with food production Private checks – “moral restraint, celibacy, chastity Destructive checks – war, poverty, pestilence, famine What is the “carrying capacity” related to today?

DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
Based on Western Europe’s experiences Stage 3 - personal choices – most critical stage Stage 4 – social customs – women Stage 5-older population begins to die off (higher CDR than CBR)

POPULATION POLICIES China’s One-Child Policy
India’s policy – democracy, education, family planning United States – norms/mores(traditions) (1750, 1950); changing demographics

MIGRATION Long-term movement of a person from one political jurisdiction to another Immigrate/Emigrate Political Economic Environmental Cultural

MIGRATION Push Factors Pull Factors

MIGRATION Forced migration Voluntary migration
KNOW RAVENSTEIN’S LAWS OF MIGRATION

Unit 3: CULTURAL PATTERNS AND PROCESSES

Think: ABC’S of CULTURE!
CONCEPTS OF CULTURE CULTURE – The way of life of a group of people Think: ABC’S of CULTURE!

CONCEPTS OF CULTURE TRAIT –
A single attribute of culture, such as wearing a turban in a Muslim society

CONCEPTS OF CULTURE COMPLEX –
Combination of traits; related set of traits, such as prevailing dress codes, cooking, eating utensils

CONCEPTS OF CULTURE SYSTEM –
Combined cultural complexes; Northern China eats wheat; Southern China eats rice; both speak a similar language; shared history, philosophy, cultural traditions & attitudes

CULTURAL LANDSCAPE The imprint of cultures on the land creates distinct and characteristic examples

CULTURAL LANDSCAPES & IDENTITY
1. VALUES AND PREFERENCES – language, religion, entertainment, government buildings “atmosphere” – easy to perceive, difficult to define “Wall Street” “China Town” “Main Street” “Little Italy”

CULTURAL LANDSCAPES & IDENTITY
2. SYMBOLIC LANDSCAPES – size of Hindu/Buddhist temples are smaller than Islamic mosque or Christian church toponyms (New York, Washington, D.C., Palestine/Rome/Paris Texas)

CULTURE HEARTH Point of origin and source of cultural growth and diffusion

CULTURAL DIFFUSION From the hearths, cultural innovations and ideas spread to other areas

CONCEPTS OF CULTURE PERCEPTION
Varying ideas and attitudes about space, place, and territory

CONCEPTS OF CULTURE Process in which ACCULTURATION a culture is substantially changed through interaction with another culture but it does not completely disappear

CONCEPTS OF CULTURE REGIONS – areas in which there is a degree of homogeneity in the cultural characteristics; areas with similar landscapes 1 – the Americas 2 – Western Europe 3 – Eastern Europe 4 – Far East/Orient 5 – South Asia

CONCEPTS OF CULTURE 6 – Southeast Asia 7 – Oceania
8 – Middle East/Arab World 9 – West Africa 10 – Sub-Saharan Africa

LANGUAGES Family – shared but distant origins (Indo-European)
Branch – collection of languages related through a common ancestor (Romance, Germanic) Group – collection of languages within a branch that share common origin and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabulary (West Germanic: English, German, Dutch Lingua Franca – common language understood by many people although they each speak another language Pidgin – language that has a small vocabulary and is combined and distorted from two or more languages

LANGUAGES Indo-European Spanish 488 English 468
2007 Statistics LANGUAGE FAMILY MAJOR LANGUAGE #/MILLIONS Indo-European Spanish English Hindi Portuguese Bengali Russian Sino-Tibetan Mandarin Chinese Japanese-Korean Japanese Korean Afro-Asiatic Arabic

RELIGION difficult to define, but contains some common characteristics: 1 – belief in a god or gods 3 – literature/book 2 – rituals 4 – ethics/rules monotheism – belief in one god polytheism – belief in more than one god animism – a soul or spirit is attributed to various phenomena universalizing – actively seeking converts (to proseltyze) - *CONFLICT* ethnic – closely identified with a specific cultural group

RELIGION statistics Islam 1,426,592,000 21.01
RELIGION TOTAL # % Christianity 2,262,112, Islam 1,426,592, Hinduism 900,362, Agnostics (No) 799,190, Buddhism 396,593, Atheism 157,529, Sikhism 23,400, Judaism 13,580,

RELIGION Cultural Landscape food eaten/meals festivals/clothing
temples/mosques/churches statues/figurines

ETHNICITY Combination of a people’s culture (traditions, customs, language, & religion) and racial ancestry Ethnic cleansing is the slaughter or forced removal of one ethnic group from its home by another group Ethnic conflicts – Yugoslavia, Quebec, Holocaust(?)

SEGREGATION OF RACES/ETHNICITIES
BLOCKBUSTING REDLINING

GENDER Roles performed culturally as designated by gender (GDI and GEM) Women still perform the majority of the domestic work In the workplace, women do not get paid the same as men or have the same number of opportunities Urban landscapes – statues and monuments typically male (war heroes, etc.)

POPULAR CULTURE FOLK CULTURE
Massive, homogeneous, diffuse rapidly, technological FOLK CULTURE Traditional, small, individualistic, family, little if any technology

Unit 4: POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY

POLITICAL DEFINITIONS
Territoriality The attempt by an individual or group to affect, influence, or control people, phenomena, and relationships, by delimiting and asserting control over a geographic area

Sovereignty Principle that final authority over social, economic, and political matters should rest with the legitimate rulers of independent states and be recognized by other states and codified by international law

Unitary State An internal organization of a state that places most power in the hands of central government officials

Federal State Allocation of strong power to units of local government within the country

Democratization The transition to a more democratic political regime

Nation a group of people who possess common cultural traits Kurdistan

State a political entity that possesses sovereignty over an area delimited by internationally recognized boundaries Mexico

Nation-state a political unit that contains one principal national group that gives it its identity and defines its territory Denmark

GROWTH THEORIES Wallerstein’s World Systems
World is divided into three spheres: core semi periphery periphery

GROWTH THEORIES Size will increase as culture develops
RATZEL’S SEVEN LAWS OF SPATIAL GROWTH Size will increase as culture develops Growth of a state is subsequent to other manifestations of the growth of the people Growth from a process of annexing smaller members Boundaries are peripheral organs that take part in all transformations of the state

GROWTH THEORIES RATZEL’S SEVEN LAWS OF SPATIAL GROWTH As state grows, it will strive to occupy some politically valuable locations 6. Initial stimulus for growth is external 7. Tendency to grow continually increases in intensity

Environmental Determinism and
GROWTH THEORIES What connection is there between these growth theories and the concepts of Environmental Determinism and Possiblism?

Colonialism and Imperialism
Core – higher levels of education, salaries, more technology Semi-periphery – transition between the two Periphery – lower levels of education, salaries, less technology

INFLUENCE OF ETHNICITY
Ethnic homogeneity of countries vary, but the extent of a state’s cultural diversity often influences its political stability

CHANGES IN POLITICAL ARRANGEMENTS
Ethnic diversity can be a strong centrifugal force – leading to civil disorder, international conflict, unspeakable human rights abuses Yugoslavia

Centripetal Forces Unifying tendencies, such as a widespread commitment to a national culture, shared ideological objectives, and a common faith

Supranationalism Organization involving three or more nation-states involving formal political, economic, and/or cultural cooperation to promote shared objectives

Devolution Process by which regions within a state demand and gain political strength and growth authority at the expense of central government

BOUNDARIES Generic Boundaries
identified on the basis of their inherent characteristics natural or physical, ethnographic or cultural, historical, geometric

BOUNDARIES Generic Boundaries: Natural boundary
follows a river or mountain range arguments over mineral and usage rights, bridge construction and maintenance, territory lost as a result of course changes over time

BOUNDARIES Ethnographic boundary Cultural differences mark separation
Partition of India

BOUNDARIES Geometric Using grid systems such as latitude and longitude or township and range

SHAPES OF STATES Compact State Prorupted State
Distance from center to any boundary does not vary significantly Prorupted State Compact state with a large projecting extension

SHAPES OF STATES Fragmented State
Includes several discontinuous pieces of territory Perforated State A state that completely surrounds another one

SHAPES OF STATES Elongated State States with long and narrow shape

Geopolitics Geopolitical Schools of Thought…
Ratzel’s Organic Theory (German) Mackinder’s Heartland Theory (British) Spykman’s Rimland Theory (American) Domino Theory (USSR), Containment (US) Foreign Policies of the U.S. Isolationism, neo-isolationism, realism, idealism

Unit 5: AGRICULTURE AND RURAL LAND USE

DEVELOPMENT AND DIFFUSION
FIRST AG REVOLUTION – seed crops, plant domestication SECOND AG REVOLUTION – Enclosure Act-large, single-owner farms, field rotation, new crops, new breeds THIRD AG REVOLUTION – “Green Revolution”, GMOs

AG PRODUCTION HEARTHS Upper SE Asian Mainland Meso-America
Lower SE Asian Mainland Eastern India SWA East African Highlands Meso-America North-Central China Mediterranean Basin Western Sudan Andean Highlands Eastern South America

AG PRODUCTION VARIANCES
Nigerian women spread seeds Slash and burn in Peru Center pivot irrigation in Oregon

AG SYSTEMS in CLIMATE ZONES

AGRICULTURAL EVOLUTION
Hunting & Gathering Shifting Cultivation (slash-and-burn) Pastoral Nomadism

Subsistence Ag Commercial Ag Mixed Crop & Livestock

Dairy Farming Grain Farming Livestock Ranching

Mediterranean Ag Commercial Gardening/Fruit Farming Plantation Farming

AGRICULTURAL FLOWS Columbian Exchange NAFTA

von THUNEN MODEL Originator of spatial models
Focused on maximizing the profit from his agricultural lands

von THUNEN MODEL Uniform soil, climate, level of terrain
All farmers lived equal distance from market and had equal access to it Farmers sought maximum profits “Isolated state” – no trade connections Possessed only one market Located centrally in the state

von THUNEN MODEL

THIRD AG REVOLUTION The complex of seed and management improvements adapted to the needs of intensive agriculture that have brought larger harvests from a given area of farmland , world cereal production rose 90%, mostly due to increased crop yields rather than expanding cropland

THIRD AG REVOLUTION average yields Rice 52%; Wheat %;

THIRD AG REVOLUTION Advancements in PINGS (Mali) has helped delay famine and extended life expectancies

THIRD AG REVOLUTION HIGH INPUT – HIGH YIELD CROPS
New variations of seeds/plants Irrigation Mechanization Fertilization Use of pesticides More food

THIRD AG REVOLUTION Irrigation has destroyed large tracts of land
Ground water depletion Conflict between agricultural societies and urban sprawl

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THIRD AG REVOLUTION
Blending of primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary sectors

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THIRD AG REVOLUTION
Increased mechanization Development of biotechnology

HOPES & FEARS ABOUT THE FUTURE
Will we be able to produce enough food for the world’s people? At what cost – economic and environmental?

Organic/Local/Sustainable Movement
Supporting local economies Reintroduction of von Thunen Model in local scale Organic practices

Unit 6: INDUSTRIALIZATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
“HE WHO HAS THE GOLD, MAKES THE RULE!”

GROWTH AND DIFFUSION Industrial Revolution – Began in England (Birmingham and Liverpool)

GROWTH AND DIFFUSION

LOCATIONAL ADVANTAGES
Location theory helps explain the spatial positioning of industries and their successes or failures Transportation, labor, energy, infrastructure costs are all a part in the location of heavy industries

LOCATIONAL ADVANTAGES
Weber’s least-cost theory Growth or decline of industries are influenced by political and environmental fluctuations

GROWTH AND DIFFUSION Global industrial pattern dominated by the first countries that industrialized Evolution of 3 economic cores and peripheries

GROWTH AND DIFFUSION North American manufacturing complex is the largest in the world today Asian Pacific Rim is the fastest growing industrial region in the world today

LEVELS OF DEVELOPMENT Enormous gaps between rich and poor, both globally and regionally Underlying economic disparities is a core-periphery relationship among different regions of the world

LEVELS OF DEVELOPMENT 21st century opened with some countries stuck in the primary sector whereas some were pushing the quaternary sector Rapid development is usually associated with democracy, but some are growing under authoritarian regimes as well

CONTEMPORARY PATTERNS
Spatial organization of world economy

ECONOMIC RESTRUCTURING
Declining cost of transportation and communication led to enormous changes in tertiary sector in 20th century Technology is accelerating the pace of life

ECONOMIC RESTRUCTURING
Deindustrialization in core has led to growth of labor intensive manufacturing in the periphery International labor has increased globalization leading to both positive and negative impacts

QUALITY OF LIFE LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT

ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE & SUSTAINABILITY

IMPACTS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION & DEVELOPMENT

CRITIQUES OF MODELS Immanuel Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory Core
Semi-periphery Periphery

CRITIQUES OF MODELS Alfred Weber – Least Cost Theory
#1 cost in industrial location… transportation of raw materials to factory as well as finished product to market Cost-minimizing and Profit-maximizing theories have their impact as well

CRITIQUES OF MODELS Hotelling-Model of Minimum Differentiation; location of vendor relative to location of competitors; beneficial to consumers, but sensitive to cost. Losch-Model of Profit Maximization; location of business should be to maximize profits by reducing transportation costs; piggy-backed off of Christaller’s Central Place Theory. Nash-Game Theory/Nash Equilibrium; solution concepts in which competitors strategize their own behaviors according to the predictability of the behavior of competitors. This provides the “player” with an advantage.

Tragedy of the Commons William Foster Lloyd
Businesses/individuals act independently according to their own self-interest contrary to the common good of all users… Examples of when we see this…Depletion of land, depletion of resources, pollution Some “abusers” don’t take into account the externality that they are causing (unintended effect)

Externalities Positive vs. Negative-a side effect or consequence of an industrial or commercial activity that affects other parties without this being reflected in the cost of the goods or services involved, such as the pollination of surrounding crops by bees kept for honey or pollution of one company into a body of water without regard of how it effects others downstream. Can externalities be solved? Coase Theorem Tax individuals for their behavior (isolated or local level) Pigouvian Tax (all participants-broad scale)

Unit 7: URBANIZATION “Cities have always been the fireplaces of civilization, whence light and heat radiated out into the dark, cold world.” - Theodore Parker

STATISTICS OF URBANIZATION
Total Population: World: 7.4 billion USA: 318 million Urban Population: World: 340,094, 520 or 51% USA: 243,545,650 or 80.1%

MEGACITIES

CHARACTERISTICS OF URBANIZATION
Transportation Access to water routes more important prior to railroads NYC, Pittsburgh, San Francisco Fall Line cities – NYC, Philadelphia, Washington DC, Richmond Va., Columbia SC, Columbus Ga.

SITE – the physical characteristics of a specific area Originally located for commerce and defense peninsulas and islands for earliest cities (Venice, Paris) hills useful because of defense and drainage (Rome)

Access to fresh water domestic consumption level of industrialization, standard of living, and population growth

Geological character - Manhattan Island on stable bedrock - Venice, Los Angeles, Mexico City are on earthquake and flood plains

SITUATION – relative location of a place Mumbai, India – adjacent to cotton fields Birmingham, England – near coal deposits Johannesburg, South Africa – centrally located around diamond mines Houston, Tex. – near oil fields in Gulf of Mexico Chicago, Ill. – major manufacturing adjacent to Corn Belt

SITUATION – relative location of a place Situation can change over time – + discovery of new resource + construction of new recreational lake - change in transportation patterns - agricultural areas effected by drought Make sure you can differentiate between site and situation.

FUNCTIONS OF A CITY Jobs and Services Residential Trade and Commerce Manufacturing Public Administration Personal Services

Peripheral Model of Urban Areas
Fig : The central city is surrounded by a ring road, around which are suburban areas and edge cities, shopping malls, office parks, industrial areas, and service complexes.

Models of Urban Land Use
These models were developed to generalize the patterns of urban land use found in early industrial US cities None of them can accurately describe land use in all cities Describe patterns of land use in a generic city, do not describe the process by which land use changes

Some assumptions seen through the models (some will be addressed in later models)
Private ownership of property Economic competition for space CBD is main point for employment Expanding area and population Physical geography plays no role (flat & featureless) Transportation is cheap, fast and reliable in all directions

Trade Off Model of Land Use
Rents decrease as distance increases Certain land use types benefit from a more central location

Criticisms of all models Economic focus Marginalize cultural/social influences Limited environmental focus ???

Concentric Zone Model Sector Model Multiple Nuclei Model Peripheral Model/Galactic City Model Urban Realms Model White’s 21st Century Model

Concentric Zone

Sector

Multi-Nuclei

Peripheral

Vance’s Urban Realms Model
Each Urban Realm is shaped by: Terrain Overall city size Amount of economic activity in each realm Internal accessibility of each core Inter-accessibility among realms

White’s 21st Century Model
Comprised of seven key elements: Core-still key but functions may have changed Zone of Stagnation-Result of vertical not horizontal expansion Pockets of poverty and minorities Elite enclaves Diffused middle class-based upon life stage and history Industrial Anchors & Public Sector Control-Exert pressure on patterns of land use and development Epicentres and corridors

John Borchert’s Epochs of Urban Transportation Development
Focused on intraurban growth Based on breakthroughs in transportation technology Sail-Wagon Epoch (1790–1830), cities grow near ports and major waterways which are used for transportation; Iron Horse Epoch (1830–70), characterized by impact of steam engine technology, and development of steamboats and regional railroad networks; Steel Rail Epoch (1870–1920), dominated by the development of long haul railroads and a national railroad network; Auto-Air-Amenity Epoch (1920–70), with growth in the gasoline combustion engine; High-Technology Epoch (1970–Present Day), expansion in service and information sectors of the economy 139

Latin American City Model
Fig : In many Latin American cities, the wealthy live in the inner city and in a sector extending along a commercial spine.

Squatter Settlements The LDCs are unable to house the rapidly growing number of poor. A large percentage of poor immigrants to urban areas in LDCs live in squatter settlements. Squatter settlements have few services, because neither the city nor the residents can afford them. Electricity service may be stolen by running a wire from the nearest power line. In the absence of bus service or available private cars, a resident may have to walk two hours to reach a place of employment. At first, squatters do little more than camp on the land or sleep in the street. Families then erect primitive shelters with scavenged (materials). The percentage of people living in squatter settlements, slums, and other illegal housing ranges from 33 percent in São Paulo, Brazil, to 85 percent in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, according to a U.N. study.

Suburban Development in the U.S. and U.K.
Fig : New housing in the U.K. is likely to be in planned new towns, while in the U.S. growth occurs in discontinuous developments.

IMPACT OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ON URBANIZATION
Urbanization has nearly doubled every 50 years since 1800 Mechanization has brought an increased flow of migrant labor England was the first place in world history to have more urban dwellers than rural dwellers (1850) In 1800, Paris was only European city on mainland to exceed 500,000; by end of century Paris, Berlin, Vienna, St. Petersburg, and Moscow all over 1 million!

Solving Problems in Cities
Not enough economic diversity Depletion of green space Homelessness Crime Challenges for all cities Solutions?

RANK-SIZE RULE AND MEGALOPOLIS
URBANIZATION RANK-SIZE RULE AND MEGALOPOLIS

PRIMATE CITY STATUS A country’s leading city is always is proportionately large and exceptionally expressive of national capacity and feeling. The primate city is commonly at least twice as large as the next largest city and more than twice as significant Mark Jefferson

PRIMATE CITY STATUS Not all countries have a primate city
India – New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bangalore China & Brazil – Beijing, Shanghai, Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro

RANK-SIZE RULE The second and subsequent smaller cities should represent a proportion of the largest city. The second city would be ½ the size of the largest city; the third largest city would be 1/3 of the size, etc George Zipf

RANK-SIZE RULE Paris (2.2 million) v. Marseilles (800,000)
London (6.9 million) v. Birmingham (1 million) Mexico City (9.8 million) v. Guadalajara (1.7 million)

MEGALOPOLIS Jean Gottman (1950s) 300 mile stretch of BosWash
Greek for “very large city” Inter-linked relationships between a variety of culturally and political urban areas

MEGALOPOLIS Initially colonial settlements from the 1400’s and grew into villages, then cities, and now urban areas As time progressed, the need for tight communication between Boston and Washington increased dramatically Currently contains 17% of the country’s total population in only 1.5% of the total area of the country

MEGALOPOLIS Economic activity, transportation, commuting, and communications linkages are most important Government center, banking center, media center, academic center, immigration center, clothing manufacturing, cultural center 40% of all commercial international air-passenger departures have Megalopolitan origins 30% of American export trade passes through the ports of Megalopolis

PRIMATE CITY of the World
New York, New York The City That Never Sleeps!

Good Luck on your APHG Exam

APHG Review: Highlights for the APHG Exam AP Human Geography

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