1. Motivation and Emotion

3. Motivation—Vocabulary Terms  MOTIVATION—an internal state that activates behavior and directs it toward a goal  INSTINCTS—innate tendencies that determine behavior  NEED—a biological or psychological requirement of an organism  DRIVE—a state of tension produced by a need that motivates an organism

4. Motivation—Vocabulary Terms  HOMEOSTASIS—the tendency of all organisms to correct imbalances and deviations from their normal state  INCENTIVE—an external stimulus, reinforcer, or reward that motivates behavior  EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION—engaging in activities that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain external incentives  INTRINSIC MOTIVATION—engaging in activities because they are personally rewarding or because they fulfill our beliefs and expectations

5. Theories of Motivation  In psychology, we can’t study motives directly; we have to study behavior and infer what the motivation was that directed the behavior.  INSTINCT THEORY — this was the first real theory of motivation. William James thought that humans were driven by a variety of instincts (cleanliness, curiosity, parental love, sociability, and sympathy).  Eventually, they noticed this theory was FLAWED: it doesn’t explain behavior, it only labels it.

6. Theories of Motivation  DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY—we all have needs that lead to drives. We all have physiological (oxygen and food) and psychological needs (self-esteem, social approval).  When we are deprived of a need (food), we become tense and agitated and we are driven to fill the need and return to a state of homeostasis.

7. What about Harry Harlow’s monkeys?

8. The take home message is this—we aren’t just motivated by biological needs and drives, or the monkey would have preferred the wire mother because it was the one with food.

9. Theories of Motivation  INCENTIVE THEORY—focuses on the environment in motivating behavior. We are motivated to obtain positive incentives and avoid negative incentives  COGNITIVE THEORY—focuses on the contrast between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.  The overjustification effect: when people are given more extrinsic motivation than necessary to perform a task, and it kills their intrinsic motivation.

10. Side Note About the Brain  Lateral hypothalamus: if this part of the brain is stimulated, a lab animal will begin eating, even if it just finished a large meal.  Ventromedial hypothalamus: if this part of the brain is stimulated, an animal will slow down or stop eating altogether, even if it is starving.  In lab rats where the ventromedial hypothalamus is removed, the animal will eat everything in sight until it becomes so obese it can hardly move.

11. Fat Rat

12. Emotions  Emotions can be some of the most powerful human motivators. We often explain our motives in terms of emotions. For example, if someone asks “why did you walk out of the meeting?” We answer “because I was angry.”

13. Emotions  Many psychologists talk about our emotional intelligence (E.Q.), and some think it may be even more important than I.Q. E.Q. is the ability to perceive, imagine, and understand emotions and to use that information in decision making.

14. Emotions  EMOTION has four basic components: (1) a positive or negative subjective experience, (2) bodily arousal, (3) specific thought processes, and (4) observable behavior.

15. Emotions and Decision Making  Emotions play a role in your ability to make decisions. In one case study, “Elliot” suffered damage to his prefrontal cortex during surgery to remove a brain tumor. He reported feeling almost no emotions after the surgery. Along with losing his emotions, Elliot also lost the ability to make decisions. He could discuss probable outcomes of different decisions, he just couldn’t make the decision itself. If he forced himself to decide something, he soon abandoned the decision.

16. Why Lie Detectors Are Unreliable  The polygraph is an instrument that records the arousal of the sympathetic nervous system, including blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing rate.  Polygraphs work under the assumption that people feel nervous when they lie.  Many innocent people get nervous just because they’re being questioned  Some people can lie without showing the physiological signs that others do (psychopaths).

17. How To Tell When Someone Is Lying  Here are some common signs of deception that MOST people exhibit when lying. There’s no way to know for sure if a person is lying or not, since some people have become very good at it, and not everyone does these things when they lie. But lots of us do:  Frequent eye blinks  Sideways glances  Downcast eyes  Stiff body posture combined with direct eye contact  Larger pupil size  Rising pitch of voice  Exaggerated facial expressions  Increased grammatical errors  Slower and less fluent speech than normal  Repetition of words and phrases

18. WHERE DO EMOTIONS COME FROM?  Charles Darwin argued that emotions were innate.  The photograph experiment supports this theory for basic emotions.

19. James-Lange Theory

20. Cannon-Bard Theory Emotion producing stimulus Feeling of emotion Physiological response

21. Cognitive Theories— The Schachter-Singer Experiment  The High-Bridge Experiment

23. Facial Feedback Theory  Your brain interprets feedback from the movement of your facial muscles for different emotions.  For instance—you see a dark shadow in the corner of your room at night. You react by raising your eyebrows and widening your eyes. Your brain interprets these facial expressions as being associated with fear, and then you feel fear.