1. Aim: Was the Cold War Really Cold? Period 6 1900 – the Present “From Stettin in the Balkans, to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lies the ancient capitals of Central and Eastern Europe.” - Sir Winston Churchill, 1946

2. I Creation of the UN The name "United Nations” was first used in the Declaration by United Nations of Jan 1, 1942, during WWII, when representatives of 26 nations pledged their governments to continue fighting together against the Axis Powers... In 1945, representatives of 50 countries met in San Francisco… to draw up the UN Charter... The United Nations officially came into existence on Oct 24, 1945, when the Charter had been ratified by China, France, the USSR, the UK, the US and[others]. https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history

3. II The Beginning of the Cold War A) In a speech to Congress known as the Truman Doctrine, President Harry S. Truman asked for U.S. assistance to help prevent Greece and Turkey from becoming communist, stating that the USSR had intentions to spread communism to Eastern Europe. Historians often cite this as the official declaration of the Cold War. In February 1947, the British government informed the US that it could no longer provide the economic and military assistance it had been giving to Greece and Turkey since the end of WWII. Truman requested $400 million in assistance for the two nations, which was approved by Congress. www.history.com

4. Truman Doctrine, March 12, 1947 Excerpt “…Should we fail to aid Greece and Turkey in this fateful hour, the effect will be far reaching to the West as well as to the East… I therefore ask the Congress to provide authority for assistance to Greece and Turkey in the amount of $400,000,000 for the period ending June 30, 1948... In addition to funds, I ask the Congress to authorize the detail of American civilian and military personnel to Greece and Turkey...”

5. The Beginning of the Cold War Continued… B) The US provided nearly $11 billion in aid to European countries between 1945 and 1947. But some believed this was not enough. On June 5, 1947, Secretary of State George C. Marshall laid out his Marshall Plan for rebuilding Europe. "It is that the United States do whatever it is able to do to assist in the return of normal economic health in the world, without which there can be no political stability and no assured peace. Our policy is directed not against any country or doctrine but against hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos.” This led to the creation of the European Recovery Act (ERA) which passed September 23, 1947. www.cia.gov Secretary of State George Marshall

6. The Beginning of the Cold War Continued… C) The Soviet Union called the Marshall Plan an "imperialist ploy". In September 1947, the Soviets founded the Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM), to mobilize against the Marshall Plan. The US responded with the National Security Act of 1947, creating the National Security Council (NSC) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in September. One of the NSC’s first acts was to grant CIA authority to conduct covert action and to assign the Agency the task of countering Soviet activities. www.cia.gov

7. The Beginning of the Cold War Continued… D) Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948 – 1949): The Yalta and Potsdam Conferences (both in 1945) met to determine how the Allied Powers would divide up Germany. The agreements split Germany into 4 “allied occupation zones”. The USSR got the east and Western Germany was given to the U.S. and UK. In 1946 the Americans and the British combined their 2 sectors. The Russians were concerned about a unified West Berlin, so they began a blockade of West Berlin to starve the western powers out. On June 15, 1948, the USSR announced that the Autobahn, the highway connecting western Germany to Berlin, would be closed indefinitely “for repairs.” Allied cargo planes used open air corridors over the Soviet occupation zone to deliver food, fuel and other goods to West Berlin. By spring 1949, it was clear that the Soviet blockade of West Berlin had failed. On May 12, 1949, the Soviets lifted the blockade. www.history.com

8. Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948 – 1949) Autobahn

9. The Beginning of the Cold War Continued… The Berlin Airlift (1948 – 1949) The first Soviet atomic test “RDS-1”, 1949 E) The Cold War Arms Race: The Soviet Union exploded its first A-bomb in 1949. Now there were two nuclear superpowers!

10. The Beginning of the Cold War Continued… F) The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): “NATO’s purpose is to safeguard the freedom and security of its members through political and military means...” NATO was created as a safeguard against communism in Eastern Europe and the USSR. http://www.nato.int/nato-welcome/#basic G) The Warsaw Pact was created in direct response to NATO. It was a defense organization that put the Soviets in command of the armed forces of its member states; Albania, Poland, Romania, Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, and Bulgaria. The Warsaw Pact remained intact until 1991. www.history.com

12. III Mao’s Revolution 1949 A) In 1945 Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong (the Chinese Communist Leader) met for a series of talks on the formation of a post-war government. Both agreed on the importance of democracy, a unified military, and equality for all Chinese political parties. The truce was tenuous. By 1946 the two sides were fighting a civil war. Although the Communists did not hold any major cities after WWII, they had a superior military organization, and large stocks of weapons seized from Japanese supplies in Manchuria. B) In October of 1949, after a string of military victories, Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People’s Republic of China. Chiang and his forces fled to Taiwan. C) The Nationalist Government of Chiang Kai-shek continued to receive U.S. support. The Soviet Union, meanwhile, occupied Manchuria and only pulled out when Chinese Communist forces were in place to claim that territory. http://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/chinese-rev

13. Who was Mao? Mao Zedong was born in 1893 into a peasant family in central China. After training as a teacher, he travelled to Beijing where he worked in the University Library. It was during this time that he began to read Marxist literature. In 1921, he became a founder member of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). In 1923, the Kuomintang (KMT) nationalist party had allied with the CCP to defeat the warlords who controlled much of northern China. Then in 1927, the KMT leader Chiang Kai-shek launched an anti-communist purge. Mao and other communists retreated to south east China. In 1934, after the KMT surrounded them, Mao led his followers on the Long March, a 6,000 mile journey to northwest China to establish a new base. The Communists and KMT were again temporarily allied during eight years of war with Japan (1937-1945), but shortly after the end of WWII, civil war broke out between them. The Communists were victorious, and on October 1, 1949 Mao proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Chiang Kai-shek fled to the island of Taiwan. Mao died on 9 September 1976.

14. Mao’s Revolution 1949 continued… D) The Great Leap Forward was a push by Mao Zedong to change China from a predominantly agrarian (farming) society to a modern, industrial society in just five years. Between 1958 and 1960, millions of Chinese citizens were moved onto communes. The Great Leap Forward was supposed to be a 5-year plan (similar to Stalin’s 5 Year Plans), but it was called off after just three years, which lead to twenty to forty-three million deaths. Above a man is holding a “Little Red Book”; a book of selected statements from speeches and writings by Mao. Paramilitary "Red Guards“ ensured every Chinese person carried one and could quote from it. "Every Communist must grasp the truth: Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun."

15. China under Mao Continued… “The worst catastrophe in China’s history, and one of the worst anywhere, was the Great Famine of 1958 to 1962, and to this day the ruling Communist Party has not fully acknowledged the degree to which it was a direct result of the forcible herding of villagers into communes under the “Great Leap Forward” that Mao Zedong launched in 1958. In all, the records I studied suggest that the Great Leap Forward was responsible for at least 45 million deaths. Between 2 and 3 million of these victims were tortured to death or summarily executed, often for the slightest infraction… Punishments for the least violations included mutilation and forcing people to eat excrement. One report dated Nov. 30, 1960 tells how a man named Wang Ziyou had one of his ears chopped off, his legs tied up with iron wire and a 10-kilogram stone dropped on his back before he was branded with a sizzling tool. His crime: digging up a potato...” By FRANK DIKÖTTER Published: December 15, 2010 NY Times

16. Backyard Furnace and Starving Children During the “Great Leap Forward”

17. IV The Space Race A) October 4, 1957 the USSR successfully launched Sputnik I, the world's first artificial satellite. This marked the start of the space age and the U.S.-U.S.S.R space race. The public feared that the Soviets could now launch ballistic missiles that could carry nuclear weapons. B) November 3, 1957 Sputnik II was launched, carrying a much heavier payload, including a dog named Laika. C) On January 31, 1958, the US successfully launched Explorer I, a satellite that would later discoverer the “Van Allen” belt. D) In July 1958, Congress passed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, which created NASA. E) In 1959 the USSR launched Luna 2, the first space probe to hit the moon. F) April 1961, the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to orbit Earth, traveling in the capsule-like spacecraft Vostok 1. http://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/

18. The Space Race Continued… G) On May 5, 1961 astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space (though not in orbit). H) Later that May 1961, President JFK proclaimed that the U.S. would land a man on the moon before the end of the decade. I) In February 1962, John Glenn became the first American to orbit Earth, and by the end of that year, the foundations of NASA’s lunar landing program–dubbed Project Apollo–were in place. J) From 1961 to 1964, NASA’s budget was increased almost 500 percent! K) December 1968 saw the launch of Apollo 8, the first manned space mission to orbit the moon. L) On July 16, 1969, U.S. astronauts Neil Armstrong, Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin and Michael Collins set off on the Apollo 11 space mission, the first lunar landing attempt. After landing successfully on July 20, Armstrong became the first man to walk on the moon’s surface; he famously called the moment “one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.”

19. The Space Race Continued… Sputnik 1, Launched 1957 “We choose to go to the moon. We choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard… It is for these reasons that I regard the decision last year to shift our efforts in space from low to high gear as among the most important decisions that will be made during my incumbency in the office of the Presidency…” JFK, September 12, 1962 Neil Armstrong on the Moon, 1966

20. V The Korean War 1950 - 1953 A) At the beginning of the 20th century, Korea had been a part of the Japanese empire. After WWII it fell to the Americans and the Soviets to decide what should be done with their enemy’s possessions. B) August 1945, the State Department divided the Korean peninsula in half along the 38th parallel. In the south, the anti-communist dictator Syngman Rhee (1875-1965) was supported by the US, and communist dictator Kim Il Sung (1912-1994) was supported by the Soviets in the north. Neither dictator was content to remain on his side of the 38th parallel. C) US Policy of Containment: April 1950, a National Security Council report recommended that the US use military force to “contain” communist expansionism anywhere it occurred. D) The Korean War officially began June 25, 1950 when 75,000 soldiers from the North Korean People’s Army crossed south of the 38th parallel. By July, American troops had entered the war on South Korea’s behalf.

21. The Korean War Continued… E) Chinese leader Mao Zedong sent troops to North Korea and warned the US to keep away from the Chinese-Korean border unless it wanted full-scale war. F) An armistice was called on July 27, 1953. The agreement allowed the POWs (Prisoners of War) to stay where they liked, drew a new boundary near the 38th parallel that gave South Korea an extra 1,500 square miles of territory; and created a 2-mile-wide “demilitarized zone” that still exists today. *There was never an “official” end of war treaty. Nearly 5 million people died. More than half were civilians. Almost 40,000 Americans died in action in Korea, and more than 100,000 were wounded. www.history.com http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Korean_War Did You Know? North Korea calls it the Fatherland Liberation War. In South Korea, it's called Six-Two-Five, after the day it started. China's subtle name for the conflict is the War to Resist U.S. Aggression and Aid Korea.

23. The Korean War Continued… Korean refugees take a rest on April 04, 1951

24. VII The Berlin Wall, 1961 On August 13, 1961, the Communist government of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) began to build a barbed wire and concrete wall. The Berlin Wall became a symbol of the Cold War until it came down in 1989. Construction of the Wall at Berlin's central Potsdamer Platz square on August 18, 1961. A boy sitting on the shoulders of another child peers at the Liesen street in Wedding, West Berlin, over the wall towards the eastern part of the city Aug. 23, 1961.

25. Premier Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) Nikita Khrushchev became Premier of the Soviet Union after Joseph Stalin's death in 1953. “About the capitalist states, it doesn't depend on you whether we [the Soviet Union] exist. If you don't like us, don't accept our invitations, and don't invite us to come to see you. Whether you like it our not, history is on our side. We will bury you.” – Khrushchev, 1956 Khrushchev Embraces Castro, 1961

26. VIII The Bay of Pigs, 1961 A) In 1959, Fidel Castro came to power in an armed revolt that overthrew Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista. American corporations and wealthy individuals owned almost half of Cuba’s sugar plantations and the majority of its cattle ranches, mines and utilities. Batista did little to restrict their operations. He was also anticommunist. The U.S. government distrusted Castro and was wary of his relationship with Nikita Khrushchev, the leader of the Soviet Union. Castro disapproved of American interests in Cuba. His slogan was “Cuba Sí, Yanquis No”. B) The CIA developed a plan during the Eisenhower administration to train Cuban exiles for an invasion of their homeland. The goal was the overthrow of Castro and the establishment of a non-communist government friendly to the US. President Eisenhower approved the program in March 1960. The CIA set up training camps in Guatemala. In Feb 1961, President Kennedy authorized the invasion plan.

27. Members of Fidel’s Militia

28. The Bay of Pigs Continued… C) On April 17, the Cuban-exile invasion force landed at beaches along the Bay of Pigs and immediately came under heavy fire and bad weather. JFK authorized six unmarked American fighter planes to help, but they arrived an hour late, most likely confused by the change in time zones. They were shot down by the Cubans, and the invasion was crushed later that day. Almost 1,200 surrendered, and more than 100 were killed. D) Castro eventually settled on $53 million worth of baby food and medicine in exchange for the POWs. http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/JFK-in-History/The-Bay-of-Pigs.aspx http://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/bay-of-pigs-invasion

29. IX The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962 A) During the Cuban Missile Crisis, leaders of the U.S. and the Soviet Union engaged in a tense, 13-day standoff in October 1962. B) In 1962 an American U-2 spy plane secretly photographed nuclear missile sites being built by the USSR on the island of Cuba. At the same time, the US had nuclear missiles in Turkey aimed at the USSR. An American reconnaissance plane was shot down over Cuba October 27, 1962. C) JFK placed a naval blockade around Cuba to prevent the Soviets from bringing in more military supplies. He demanded the removal of the missiles already there and the destruction of the sites. *At this point there was a real fear of nuclear war. D) Khrushchev agreed to dismantle the weapon sites in exchange for a pledge from the US not to invade Cuba. In a separate deal, which remained secret for more than 25 years, the US also agreed to remove its nuclear missiles from Turkey. E) Although the Soviets removed their missiles from Cuba, they escalated the building of their military arsenal. http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK/JFK-in-History/Cuban-Missile-Crisis.aspx http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/nsa/cuba_mis_cri/moment.htm

30. In 1962, American intelligence agencies photographed Soviet nuclear missile installations in Cuba.

31. The Threat of the Cuban Missile Crisis

32. Effective?

33. X The Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, 1963 On August 5, 1963, the US, USSR and UK signed the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, which prohibited the testing of nuclear weapons in outer space, underwater or in the atmosphere.

34. XI The Vietnam War 1965 - 1973 A) The French defeat of the Indochina War (1946 – 1954) resulted in the division of the former French colony of Indochina into 3 separate countries; Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. Vietnam was divided along the 17th Parallel into the Communist North Vietnam and the anti- Communist South Vietnam until a nationwide election would be held to unify the country. B) In 1956 South Vietnam refused to hold the election. JFK sent 2,000 military to support the South, which was increased to 16,300 by 1963. By 1960, the National Liberation Front (Viet Cong) had begun to crush the South Vietnamese government. In 1964, after an alleged attack on two U.S. Navy vessels, the Gulf of Tokin Resolution was passed by Congress giving President Johnson authorization to use military forces in Southeast Asia. The number of US troops in Vietnam peaked at 540,000 in 1968.

35. Life Magazine February 11, 1966 A woman mourns over the body of her husband after identifying him by his teeth and covering his head with her conical hat. The man’s body was found with 47 others in a mass grave near Hue on 11 April 1969.

36. The Vietnam War Continued… C) On January 31, 1968, 70,000 Viet Cong forces launched the Tet Offensive, a coordinated series of attacks on more than 100 cities and towns in South Vietnam. General Vo Nguyen Giap, leader of the Communist People’s Army of Vietnam (PAVN), planned the offensive to spur rebellion among the South Vietnamese and encourage the United States to scale back its support. The Tet Offensive further increased American anti-war sentiment. Historians consider this a turning point; a strategic victory for the North and the beginning of America’s withdrawal from Vietnam. http://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/tet-offensive

38. The Vietnam War Continued… D) In 1969, President Richard Nixon proposed “Vietnamization” which gave South Vietnamese forces greater responsibility in fighting the war while still receiving American aid. E) In 1970, Nixon attempted to destroy Viet Cong supply bases to the south in Laos and Cambodia. This provoked anti-war protests in the U.S. F) In Jan 1973, the Paris Peace Accord was signed establishing a ceasefire and allowing a POW exchange following U.S. force withdrawal. G) The fall of Saigon on April 30, 1975 marked the end of the Vietnam War and Vietnam was reunified as a communist country. http://thevietnamwar.info/vietnamwarsummary/#sthash.52UO4Q1F.dpuf

39. Murder of a Vietcong by Saigon Police Chief 1968 After Nguyen Ngoc Loan raised his sidearm and shot Vietcong operative Nguyen Van Lem in the head he walked over to the reporters and told them that, “These guys kill a lot of our people, and I think Buddha will forgive me.” Captured on NBC TV cameras and by AP photographer Eddie Adams, the picture and film footage flashed around the world and quickly became a symbol of the Vietnam War’s brutality. What Adams’ photograph doesn’t reveal is that the man being shot (named Nguyen Van Lem) was the captain of a Vietcong “revenge squad” that had executed dozens of unarmed civilians earlier the same day. The photo won a Pulitzer Prize. http://rarehistoricalphotos.com/saigon -execution-murder-vietcong-saigon- 1968/

40. XI Fall of the Berlin Wall, Nov 1989 On Nov 9, 1989, the spokesman for East Berlin’s Communist Party announced that citizens of the GDR were free to cross the country’s borders. East and West Berliners flocked to the wall, drinking beer and champagne and chanting “Tor auf!” (“Open the gate!”). At midnight, they flooded through the checkpoints. More than 2 million people from East Berlin visited West Berlin that weekend. People used hammers and picks to knock away chunks of the wall while cranes and bulldozers pulled down section after section. Soon the wall was gone and Berlin was united for the first time since 1945. The reunification of East and West Germany was made official on October 3, 1990.

41. XII Augusto Pinochet, 1973 A) On Sept. 11, 1973, Chile's armed forces overthrew the government of Salvador Allende in a violent coup, aided by the American CIA. The military assumed power, led Augusto Pinochet Ugarte. B) Pinochet waged executions, "disappearances" and the arrest and torture of thousands of Chileans. C) Chile returned to a democratic government in 1990 when Patricio Aylwin was elected president, but Pinochet remained head of the military until his arrest in Oct 1998 in England. He died in 2006 without being tried for his crimes. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpsrv/inatl/longte rm/pinochet/overview.htm “Sometimes democracy must be bathed in blood.” -Pinochet

42. XIII Russians in Afghanistan 1979 - 1980 A) In December 1979, the USSR under Brezhnev sent thousands of troops into Afghanistan. *This is the only time the USSR invaded a country outside the Eastern Bloc. B) The US under President Carter enacted economic sanctions and trade embargoes against the Soviet Union, called for a boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics, and stepped up its aid to the Afghan insurgents. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1977-1980/soviet-invasion- afghanistan “During the 1970s, when the Russia was the biggest threat to America and radical Islam was not as a concern of the USA’s, the USA began funding and training Islamic militants to fight our Russian enemies in Afghanistan. These militants, known as the mujahedeen would rebel the Russians out of Afghanistan and later become the Taliban, Al Qaeda and the Muslim Brotherhood. One of the most prominent members of he mujahedeen was a wealthy son of a Saudi Arabian businessman named Osama Bin Laden. National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski visited Afganistan in 1979 and met with Bin Laden and even took a picture with him.” http://newsone.com/1205745/cia-osama-bin-laden-al-qaeda/

43. Russians in Afghanistan Continued… “We know of their deep belief in God, and we are confident their struggle will succeed. That land over there is yours, you’ll go back to it one day because your fight will prevail, and you’ll have your homes and your mosques back again. Because your cause is right and God is on your side.” - National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski to Osama bin Laden. USSR former leader Brezhnev

44. XIV S.A.L.T. and Star Wars A) US President Nixon and Soviet Leader Brezhnev signed the SALTI and SALTII (Strategic Arms Limitations Talks) agreements in 1972 and 1979. For the first time during the Cold War, the US and USSR agreed to limit the number of nuclear missiles in their arsenals. B) In an address to the nation on March 23, 1983, President Reagan announced his vision of a missile defense system. His Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), was later dubbed "Star Wars" by the press. At the end of the Strategic Defense Initiative, thirty billion dollars had been invested in the program and no laser and mirror system was ever used on land or in space. There was a fear that it would violate the SALT treaties. http://www.coldwar.org/articles/80s/SDI-StarWars.asp Above: Nixon Below: Reagan

45. XV The Fall of the USSR A) Mikhail Gorbachev was the 8 th and last leader of the USSR (served 1985 – 1991). B) Recognizing this, Gorbachev introduced reforms to lead the USSR from communism to a mixed market economy. 1. Glasnost: “openness” It was the end of the banning of books and secret police. Political prisoners were released. Newspapers could print criticisms of the government. For the first time, parties other than the Communist Party could participate in elections. 2. Perestroika: “change” individuals and cooperatives were allowed to own businesses for the first time since the 1920s. Workers were given the right to strike. Foreign investment was encouraged. 3. Détente: He sought increased cooperation with the US, and shifted funds from defense to civil society. “It would be naive to think that the problems plaguing mankind today can be solved with means and methods which were applied or seemed to work in the past.”

46. The Fall of the USSR Continued… On Christmas Day 1991, the Soviet flag flew over the Kremlin in Moscow for the last time. A few days earlier, representatives from 11 Soviet republics (Ukraine, the Russian Federation, Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) met in the Kazakh city of Alma-Ata and announced that they would no longer be part of the Soviet Union. Instead, they declared they would establish a Commonwealth of Independent States. Because the three Baltic republics (Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia) had already declared their independence from the USSR, only one of its 15 republics, Georgia, remained. The once-mighty Soviet Union had fallen, largely due to the great number of radical reforms that Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev had implemented during his six years as the leader of the USSR. Gorbachev resigned from his job on December 25. http://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/fall-of-soviet-union

47. The Fall of the USSR Continued… Left: About 100,000 demonstrators march on the Kremlin in Moscow on January 20, 1991. Right: November 13, 1991 in Berlin shows workers standing next to the head of a statue of Lenin being dismantled.

48. The First Russian McDonalds Opened Jan 1, 1990

49. HW Questions 1. Fill in your Period 6 Chart for the Korean, Vietnam, and Cold War. Make a box for the 6 Day War. 2. What were the biggest mistakes made by the US during the Cold War? What were the biggest mistakes made by the USSR during the Cold War? 3.Do you agree more with the actions of the US or the USSR? Why? 4.Is the Cold War still going on today? Find evidence from at least 2 articles; one has to be from a Russian news source (RT.com).

50. Key Vocabulary 38th Parallel Bay of Pigs Berlin Airlift Berlin Blockade Berlin Wall CIA Cold War Cuban Missile Crisis European Recovery Act Glasnost Gorbachev Gulf of Tokin Resolution Iron Curtain JFK Khmer Rouge Khrushchev Korean War Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Long March Marshall Plan NASA Neil Armstrong Osama bin Laden Paris Peace Accord Perestroika Pinochet Pol Pot Richard Nixon Ronald Reagan SALT1 and SALT2 SDI Space Race Sputnik Tet Offensive Truman Doctrine United Nations Vietcong Vietnamization Vietnam War