1. Motivation Close your eyes and think of the future. What image first comes to mind? How long does it take to see that something? We are intrinsically goal oriented, Goals capture our attention from the time we awaken in the morning until we go to sleep at night. Motivation is central to human experience.

2. AP PSYCHOLOGY Chapter 12 Motivation Bandy Spring 13

3. Hope Scale Hope -two necessary components: – agency is the willpower or energy to get moving toward one’s goals and – pathways is the perceived ability to generate routes to achieve those goals. The agency subscale score is derived by adding items 2, 9, 10, and 12. The pathways subscale is derived by adding items 1, 4, 6, and 8. A total score is obtained by adding the four agency and four pathways items. Items 3, 5, 7, and 11 are distractors intended to make the content of the scale less obvious. Mean scores on each subscale are 12.5, with the average total “hope” score being 25.

4. Hope Scale Interpreted People who score high on the Hope Scale pursue a greater number of life goals and are more successful in achieving these goals. They tend to interpret obstacles in life as challenges rather than as threats. In contrast to the less hopeful, they react to obstacles with less stress and less of an increase in blood pressure. Generally, hopeful people report a higher level of life satisfaction, greater self- esteem, and more optimism. They are less anxious, fearful, and depressed. In laboratory settings, they prefer to engage in challenging tasks; less hopeful people prefer easy tasks. In one study, introductory psychology students took the Hope Scale at the beginning of the semester. Three weeks later, they were asked what final grade they expected to receive in the course. Hope scores were positively correlated with expected grades. Furthermore, although hopeful people did not have a higher IQ, they did in fact attain higher grades.

5. Why do people go to college? Motivation has both energizing and directional aspects. Earn a living to feed their family Find a wife or husband Increase their competence Experience new things

6. There are different ways of thinking of the way motivation works, all of which relate to the “push” of biological processes and the “pull” of culture, social forces, and ideals. Instinct Theory  Evolutionary Perspective Drive- Reduction Theory Arousal [Optimization] Theory Hierarchy of Needs/Motives Perspectives on Motivation Incentive Approach

7. Motivation A motivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it toward a goal.

8. Instincts  Evolutionary Perspective Other species have genetically programmed instincts “motivating” their actions. Do humans?  Human babies show certain reflexes, but in general, our behavior is less prescribed by genetics than other animals.  We may, however, have general patterns of behavior which can be explained as emerging through natural selection.  Instinct theory has given way to evolutionary theory in explaining human behavior.

9. The Competent Newborn Infants are born with reflexes that aid in survival, including rooting reflex which helps them locate food.

10. Infant Reflexes Rooting - turning the head and opening the mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheek Sucking - sucking rhythmically in response to oral stimulation Babinski - fanning and curling toes when foot is stroked Moro - throwing the arms out, arching the back and bringing the arms together as if to hold onto something (in response to loud noise or sudden change in position of the head) Grasping - curling the fingers around an object

11. Motivation Drive-Reduction Theory When the instinct theory of motivation failed it was replaced by the drive-reduction theory. A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need (Hull, 1951). Most powerful when you have a push (need) and a pull (incentive). – Hungry person (increased hunger drive) who smells food will be more compelled to eat. Drive-reducing behaviors (eating, drinking) Need (e.g., for food, water) Drive (hunger, thirst)

12. Drive Reduction Food Drive Reduction Organism The physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis, the maintenance of a steady internal state (e.g., maintenance of steady body temperature). Stomach Full Empty Stomach (Food Deprived)

13. Drives “Push” and Incentives “Pull” Drives are based on inner needs and can be seen as a force “pushing” from inside of us. Incentives are external stimuli that either appeal to our needs or trigger our aversive feelings, and can be used to “pull” us in our actions. For example:  we have a drive to have food, or money we can exchange for food.  employers can use the prospect of a raise in (or elimination of) salary as an incentive for us to follow employer goals and policies.

14. Incentive Approach: Motivation’s Pull Emphasizes the role of environmental stimuli that can motivate behavior by pulling us toward them or pushing us away from them. Incentives motive us by pulling us toward them. – Incentive - a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior. People behave in order to get positive incentives and avoid negative incentives. – Intrinsic = causes us to participate in an activity for our own enjoyment, rather than for any concrete reward. – Extrinsic = causes us to do something for money, a grade or some other concrete tangible reward.

15. Incentive Approach Motivation is a product of people’s thoughts, expectations, and goals. – The degree to which you study for a test is based on your expectation of how well studying will pay off in terms of a good grade. – Video: Science of motivation Video: Science of motivation

16. Motivation Intrinsic Motivation – desire to perform a behavior for its own sake or to be effective Extrinsic Motivation – desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment Over-justification effect occurs when an expected external incentive such as money or prizes decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task. Video: Science of motivation

17. Overjustification Effect Occurs when an expected external incentive such as money or prizes decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task. STUDY: Deci (1971) conducted a study in which students were either asked to solve puzzles for money or no money. After the payment stopped, the researchers noted if the students continued to work on the puzzles. Those that had received money (an extrinsic motivation for solving the puzzles) did in fact become less inclined to work on the puzzles once they were no longer paid to do so. The students who had not been paid (they only had intrinsic motivation) continued to show an interest in the puzzles.

18. Overjustification Effect When control is placed on individuals by offering them incentives, the long term effect will be a loss in intrinsic motivation, accompanied by negative performance. This applies to classrooms, sports teams, as well as other environments. Should a reward be present, there is a risk of losing the enjoyment of the activity for itself. Given this theory, how can we make young kids more INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED?

19. Rewards Affect Motivation Mom: “I’ll give you $5 for every A.’’ Controlling reward Child: “As long as she pays, I’ll study.’’ Extrinsic motivation Mom: “Your grades were great! Let’s celebrate by going out for dinner.’’ Informative reward Child: “I love doing well.’’ Intrinsic motivation

20. Motivation Homeostasis – tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state – regulation of any aspect of body chemistry around a particular level

21. Hierarch of Needs Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that certain needs have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing, thirst, and hunger come before psychological needs such as achievement, self-esteem, and the need for recognition. (1908-1970)

22. The Need to Belong “[Man] is a social animal,” (Aristotle). Separation from others increases our need to belong. 22 “Cast Away,” Tom Hanks, suffers from social starvation. 20 th Century Fox/ Dreamworks/ The Kobal Collection

23. Hierarchy of Needs/Motives In 1943, Abraham Maslow proposed that humans strive to ensure that basic needs are satisfied before they find motivation to pursue goals that are higher on this hierarchy.

24. Seeking Optimum Arousal  Some behavior cannot be easily connected to a biological need, and instead seems driven by a need to either increase or decrease our physiological arousal level.  Curiosity, as with kids and these monkeys, may be a way of increasing stimulation to reach an optimum arousal level.

25. Motivation At what level of arousal do you perform at your peak? Yerkes - Dodson Law– people perform best under moderate arousal. – Simple tasks – optimal arousal point is high – Complex tasks – optimal level is low Performance Arousal Optimum DISCUSSION: what types of activities would fit with this law? - Test taking? - athletics? - interpersonal communication? - work?

26. Arousal Approach Each of us tries to maintain a certain level of stimulation and activity. Whenever the level of stimulation dips below organism’s optimal level, it seeks ways to increase it. – Low levels of stimulation will lead us to increase our arousal. – Some people are wired to continually seek, we become bored easily so we search for arousal – Others become stressed with stimulation and look ways to decrease arousal.

27. Zuckerman’s Sensation Seekers scores can range from 0 to 10, with higher scores reflecting a greater tendency toward sensation- seeking. – 0 to 2 would reflect low sensation-seeking; – 4 to 7, moderate sensation seeking; – 8 to 10, high sensation-seeking.

28. Sensation Seekers Thrill & Adventure seeking: expressing desires to engage in sports or activities involving some physical danger or risk such as mountain climbing, parachute jumping, scuba diving, speeding in a car, etc. Experience seeking : desire to seek new experiences through the mind and senses by living in a nonconforming life style with unconventional friends, and through travel. Disinhibition - describes the need to disinhibit behavior in the social sphere by drinking, partying and seeking variety in sexual partners. Boredom susceptibility: indicates an aversion for repetitive experience of any kind, routine work, or even dull or predictable people. Other items indicate a restless reaction when things are unchanging.

29. Sensation Seekers:Brain Chemistry “Some people have brains that keep pace with stimulation intensities,” writes Zuckerman. “The stronger the stimulus the more the brain responds. Other persons have some kind of inhibition that actually diminishes their response at high intensities.” High-sensation seekers tend to be the former. Compared to low sensation-seekers, high sensation-seekers show: – lower amounts of monoamine oxidase (MAO), an enzyme responsible for maintaining the proper levels of neuro-transmitters in the nerve cells. – Too little MAO means more neurotransmitter availability and less inhibition in the nervous system. Because of weak biochemical brakes in the synapse, high sensation-seekers may have less control over their behavior, thoughts, and emotions.

30. Motivational Theories Motivation refers to a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal. – For each theory discussed, provide one example of human behavior that can be explained by each theory. – Be able to clearly articulate why the theory can explain the behavior. Evolutionary Perspective Drive Reduction Theory Incentive Theory Arousal Theory Hierarchy of Needs

31. Imagine yourself a supervisor in a business setting? How might each approach be used to design employment policies that can sustain or increase motivation? Try to

32. Motivation Achievement Motivation – a desire for significant accomplishment for mastery of things, people, or ideas for attaining a high standard – McClelland and Atkinson believed fantasies would reflect achievement concerns

33. Imagine yourself in this situation: You are planning to engage in a certain activity (such as tennis, a card game, or chess). You must select an opponent in this activity (for example, a person who is easy or difficult to beat). The choice can be made from among nine persons. You have seen them compete against each other, so you can estimate how well you might do as follows:

34. Considering both the possibility of winning and losing, which one of the above levels would you select? You think you might beat your opponent 1 out of ten each time you play (you would win 10% of the time). – (win 20% of the time)? – (win 30% of the time)? – (win 40% of the time)? – (win 50% of the time)? – (win 60% of the time)? – (win 70% of the time)? – (win 80% of the time)? – (win 90% of the time)?

35. Most college students are likely to select the alternatives in which the likelihood of winning is between 40 and 60%. Any achievement-related goal raises both a hope of success and a fear of failure. Those with a high Nach are likely to choose opponents that are moderately challenging.

36. Achievement Motivation Set moderately difficult, but potentially achievable goals – Overload principle – Strength can be increased by lifting weights that are difficult but realistic enough to stretch the muscle.

37. Paper Toss: People with hi Nach are most likely to choose tasks that are intermediate in difficulty. These people should choose intermediate distances from the wastebasket on the 1 st trial to ensure they have some points and are in a position to win. Those with lo Nach are motivated to avoid failure. Seek out easy tasks; that are relatively easy so they get some points. – May also try difficult shots, so if the lose there will be no negative implications for missing such a difficult shot.

38. Studies on Nach: People with Hi Ach do achieve more One study followed the lives of 1528 Cal. Children intelligence test scores were in the top 1%. – Researchers compared those who were most and least successful professionally, they found a motivational difference. Those most successful – more ambitious, energetic, persistent. As children, they had more hobbies; As adults, they participated in more groups and favored in being in a sport, rather than watching.

39. The Best of the Best Top violinists have accumulated some 10,000 lifetime practice hours. World-class experts in a field typically have invested “at least 10 years of hard work – 40 hours / week 50 weeks / year

40. Why, despite having similar potentials, does one person become more motivated to achieve than another? Highly motivated children often have parents and teachers who encourage their independence from an early age & praise and reward them for their success. High ach. Motivation displayed by such children has EMOTIONAL roots. – They learn to associate ach. with + emotions May be COGNITIVE roots – Children learn to attribute their ach. To own competence & effort, raising expectations.

41. Intrinsic Motivation Worried about your course grade? Are you finding material interesting? Does learning it lead you feel more competent? If there were no grade at stake, might you be curious enough to want to learn the material on your own? If yes, intrinsic motivation also fuels your efforts.

42. Athletes on Scholarship Studies show that athletes on scholarship enjoyed playing less than those that did not. Had “pay” and pressure turned play into labor?

43. Should Coaches emphasize extrinsic rewards & competition? Overjustification effect occurs when an expected external incentive such as money or prizes decreases a person's intrinsic motivation to perform a task Depends on the goal: – For professionals, it may pay to control the players with pressures and rewards for winning. – Amateurs, external pressures, competitive emphasis, and evaluative feedback are in contradiction to that goal. Should focus not on winning, but on the joy of playing one’s best.

44. Rewards Affect Motivation Mom: “I’ll give you $5 for every A.’’ Controlling reward Child: “As long as she pays, I’ll study.’’ Extrinsic motivation Mom: “Your grades were great! Let’s celebrate by going out for dinner.’’ Informative reward Child: “I love doing well.’’ Intrinsic motivation

45. Review: 1.Instinct Theory 2.Drive Reduction Theory 3.Arousal Approach 4.Incentive approach 5.Cognitive Approach 6.Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs A writer who works all day composing copy for an advertising firm has a hard time keeping her mind on her work and continually watches the clock. After work she turns to a collection of stories she is creating and writes long into the night, completely forgetful of the clock. What ideas on motivation help to explain this phenomenon?

46. Review: 1.Instinct Theory 2.Drive Reduction Theory 3.Arousal Approach 4.Incentive approach 5.Cognitive Approach 6.Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

47. Which approaches to motivation are used in the workplace? How might each approach be used to design employment policies that can sustain or increase motivation?