1. Unit 1: What is Sociology?

2. Section 1: Basic Terms and Sociological Perspectives

3. What is Sociology? ...is the scientific study of human behavior in groups and of the social forces that influence that behavior. ...the scientific study of human society and social behavior.  Sociology - A systematic and objective study of society and social behavior. ...is the scientific study of human behavior in groups and of the social forces that influence that behavior. ...the scientific study of human society and social behavior.  Sociology - A systematic and objective study of society and social behavior.

4. Common Terms  Society - A comprehensive social grouping that includes all the social institutions required to meet basic human needs.  Social Institution- A process or association that is highly organized, systematized and stable.  Political  Education  Religion  Economics  Family  Society - A comprehensive social grouping that includes all the social institutions required to meet basic human needs.  Social Institution- A process or association that is highly organized, systematized and stable.  Political  Education  Religion  Economics  Family

5. The Development of Sociology  Sociology emerged as a separate discipline in the nineteenth century  This was a time of great social upheaval due largely to the French and Industrial Revolutions  Several early sociologists shaped the direction of the discipline  Sociology emerged as a separate discipline in the nineteenth century  This was a time of great social upheaval due largely to the French and Industrial Revolutions  Several early sociologists shaped the direction of the discipline

6. The Sociological Imagination  C. Wright Mills coined the term “sociological imagination” to refer to “...the vivid awareness of the relationship between private experience and the wider society.” C. Wright Mills

7. Three revolutions had to take place before the sociological imagination could crystallize:  The scientific revolution (16 th c.) encouraged the use of evidence to substantiate theories.  The democratic revolution (18 th c.) encouraged the view that human action can change society.  The industrial revolution (19 th c.) gave sociologists their subject matter.  The scientific revolution (16 th c.) encouraged the use of evidence to substantiate theories.  The democratic revolution (18 th c.) encouraged the view that human action can change society.  The industrial revolution (19 th c.) gave sociologists their subject matter.

8. Theoretical Perspectives: Functionalism  Functionalism sees society as a system of highly interrelated parts that work together harmoniously  The image that functionalists use to understand society is a living organism  Each part of society works together for the benefit of the whole much like a living organism  Functionalism sees society as a system of highly interrelated parts that work together harmoniously  The image that functionalists use to understand society is a living organism  Each part of society works together for the benefit of the whole much like a living organism

9. Functionalism  Manifest Functions  Intended or overtly recognized by participants in a social unit  Examples  Latent Functions  Unintended functions that are hidden and unacknowledged by participants  Examples  Dysfunctions  Undesirable consequences  May threaten a society’s capacity to adapt and survive  Manifest Functions  Intended or overtly recognized by participants in a social unit  Examples  Latent Functions  Unintended functions that are hidden and unacknowledged by participants  Examples  Dysfunctions  Undesirable consequences  May threaten a society’s capacity to adapt and survive

10. Theoretical Perspectives: Conflict Theory  Conflict theory is grounded in the work of Karl Marx  Society is understood to be made up of conflicting interest groups who fight for power and privilege  This dynamic results in continuous social change, which is the normal state of affairs  Conflict theory focuses heavily on inequality and differential distribution of power and wealth  Conflict theory is grounded in the work of Karl Marx  Society is understood to be made up of conflicting interest groups who fight for power and privilege  This dynamic results in continuous social change, which is the normal state of affairs  Conflict theory focuses heavily on inequality and differential distribution of power and wealth

11. Conflict Perspective  Groups in society are engaged in continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources (Marx, Weber)  Encompasses several branches:  Neo-Marxist (class struggle)  Racial-Ethnic (exploitation)  Feminist (gender issues)  Groups in society are engaged in continuous power struggle for control of scarce resources (Marx, Weber)  Encompasses several branches:  Neo-Marxist (class struggle)  Racial-Ethnic (exploitation)  Feminist (gender issues)

12. Theoretical Perspectives: The Interactionist Perspective  Focuses on how individuals make sense of and interpret the world  This perspective tends to focus on the “micro- order” of small groups  Has given rise to several specific approaches:  Symbolic Interactionism developed by George Herbert Mead  Ethnomethodology developed by Harold Garfinkel  Dramaturgy developed by Erving Goffman  Focuses on how individuals make sense of and interpret the world  This perspective tends to focus on the “micro- order” of small groups  Has given rise to several specific approaches:  Symbolic Interactionism developed by George Herbert Mead  Ethnomethodology developed by Harold Garfinkel  Dramaturgy developed by Erving Goffman

13. Symbolic Interactionist  Examines people’s day-to-day interactions and their behavior in small groups (micro-level)  Society is the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups  Subjective Reality  Each person’s interpretation or definition of a given situation (shared or not shared symbols)  Examines people’s day-to-day interactions and their behavior in small groups (micro-level)  Society is the sum of the interactions of individuals and groups  Subjective Reality  Each person’s interpretation or definition of a given situation (shared or not shared symbols)

14. Comparing Theoretical Perspectives Perspective Scope of Analysis Point of View Focus of Analysis Structural- Functionalism Macro Level 1. Various parts of society are interdependent 2. Social systems are highly stable 3. Social life governed by consensus & cooperation Functional and dysfunctional aspects of society Conflict Theory Macro Level 1. Society accommodates between competing interest groups 2. Society unstable and prone to change 3. Social life conflict-laden 1. How social inequalities produce conflict 2. Who benefits from social arrangements InteractionistMicro-Level 1. Actions have symbolic meanings 2. Meanings can vary How people make sense of their world

15. Section 2: Big Names in the Field

16. Auguste Comte (1798-1857)  Responsible for coining the term “sociology”  Set out to develop the “science of man” that would be based on empirical observation  Positivism: the belief that knowledge should be derived from scientific observation  Focused on two aspects of society: Social Statics—forces which produce order and stability Social Dynamics—forces which contribute to social change  Responsible for coining the term “sociology”  Set out to develop the “science of man” that would be based on empirical observation  Positivism: the belief that knowledge should be derived from scientific observation  Focused on two aspects of society: Social Statics—forces which produce order and stability Social Dynamics—forces which contribute to social change

17. Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)  Authored one of the earliest analyses of culture and life in the United States entitled Theory and Practice of Society in America  Translated Comte’s Positive Philosophy into English  Authored one of the earliest analyses of culture and life in the United States entitled Theory and Practice of Society in America  Translated Comte’s Positive Philosophy into English Harriet Martineau

18. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)  Authored the first sociology text, Principles of Sociology  Most well known for proposing a doctrine called “Social Darwinism” Suggested that people who could not compete were poorly adapted to the environment and inferior This is an idea commonly called survival of the fittest  Authored the first sociology text, Principles of Sociology  Most well known for proposing a doctrine called “Social Darwinism” Suggested that people who could not compete were poorly adapted to the environment and inferior This is an idea commonly called survival of the fittest

19. What is the “glue” that holds societies together? What provides people with a sense of belonging? Why are these bubbles coming out of my head?

20. Emile Durkheim  Concerned with social order and stability  People are a product of their social environment  Human potential is socially based, not biologically based  Societies are built on social facts  Rapid social change produces social strain  Mechanical Solidarity: is the sense of togetherness in a society that arises when people, performing similar work, share similar experiences, customs, values, and beliefs.  Organic Solidarity: social unity based on a division of labor that results in people depending on each other  Concerned with social order and stability  People are a product of their social environment  Human potential is socially based, not biologically based  Societies are built on social facts  Rapid social change produces social strain  Mechanical Solidarity: is the sense of togetherness in a society that arises when people, performing similar work, share similar experiences, customs, values, and beliefs.  Organic Solidarity: social unity based on a division of labor that results in people depending on each other

21. Conflict is necessary to produce social change and a better society I, too, have these bubbles popping out my head! I think today I will establish a free and classless society

22. Karl Marx  History is a continuous clash between conflicting ideas and forces  Economic changes are most important  Class conflict between capitalist class bourgeoisie and the working class proletariat  Alienation  Fetishism of Commodities  Society should be changed  Criticized for too much emphasis on class struggle  Class Conflict: the ongoing struggle between the owning class and the working class  History is a continuous clash between conflicting ideas and forces  Economic changes are most important  Class conflict between capitalist class bourgeoisie and the working class proletariat  Alienation  Fetishism of Commodities  Society should be changed  Criticized for too much emphasis on class struggle  Class Conflict: the ongoing struggle between the owning class and the working class

23. Sociology should be value-free – it should exclude the researcher’s personal values and economic interests Then, we need to gain the ability to see the world as others see it It really isn’t possible for sociologists to be value-free is it?

24. Max Weber  Rationalization the mind-set emphasizing knowledge, reason, and planning – the modern world has become dominated by structures devoted to:  Efficiency  Calculability  Predictability  Technological Control  Emphasized the goal of value-free inquiry & necessity of understanding how others see the world  Verstehen: understanding social behavior by putting yourself in the place of others  Rationalization the mind-set emphasizing knowledge, reason, and planning – the modern world has become dominated by structures devoted to:  Efficiency  Calculability  Predictability  Technological Control  Emphasized the goal of value-free inquiry & necessity of understanding how others see the world  Verstehen: understanding social behavior by putting yourself in the place of others

25. Section 3: Research Methods

26. Who Conducts the Research? Sociologists: – Study the influence that society has on people’s attitudes and behavior – Seek to understand ways in which people interact and shape society

27. Sociology and Common Sense Sociologists do not accept something as fact because “everyone knows it” Findings are tested by researchers, analyzed in relation to other data, and evaluated with sociological theory

28. What Good Is Sociological Theory? Theory: set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior –Effective theories have explanatory and predictive power –Durkheim’s work on suicide provides a classic case of sociological theory at work

29. Research, Values, and Biases ● Sociologists strive for objectivity, a state of personal neutrality in conducting research, whenever possible following Max Weber’s model of value-free research. -One way to limit distortion caused by personal values is through replication, repetition of research by others in order to assess its accuracy. ● Limitations of scientific sociology. -Human behavior is too complex to allow sociologists to predict precisely any individual’s actions. - Because humans respond to their surroundings, the mere presence of a researcher may affect the behavior being studied. ● Social patterns change; what is true in one time or place may not hold true in another. ● Sociologists strive for objectivity, a state of personal neutrality in conducting research, whenever possible following Max Weber’s model of value-free research. -One way to limit distortion caused by personal values is through replication, repetition of research by others in order to assess its accuracy. ● Limitations of scientific sociology. -Human behavior is too complex to allow sociologists to predict precisely any individual’s actions. - Because humans respond to their surroundings, the mere presence of a researcher may affect the behavior being studied. ● Social patterns change; what is true in one time or place may not hold true in another.

30. An Overview of Research Methods  Quantitative research uses data that can easily be converted into numbers, such as a survey or an experiment.  Qualitative research involves data that cannot easily be converted to numbers, such as observation or informal interviews.  Quantitative research uses data that can easily be converted into numbers, such as a survey or an experiment.  Qualitative research involves data that cannot easily be converted to numbers, such as observation or informal interviews.

31. Qualitative Methods  In participant observation the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting.

32. Qualitative Methods  One way to collect to data is through ethnography, a naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities.  Ethnography is often a two-part activity: active participation in and observation of a naturally occurring setting, and a written account (field notes) of what goes on there.  One way to collect to data is through ethnography, a naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities.  Ethnography is often a two-part activity: active participation in and observation of a naturally occurring setting, and a written account (field notes) of what goes on there.

33. Qualitative Methods  Interviews involve direct, face-to-face contact with respondents, and often can generate large amounts of qualitative data.  As in most research, the researcher identifies the target population that she wishes to study, and then selects a sample of people to be interviewed from that population.  Why use a sample?  Interviews involve direct, face-to-face contact with respondents, and often can generate large amounts of qualitative data.  As in most research, the researcher identifies the target population that she wishes to study, and then selects a sample of people to be interviewed from that population.  Why use a sample?

34. Qualitative Methods (cont)  Interviews:  A closed-ended question imposes a limit on the possible responses: for example, “ Are you for or against couples living together before they are married? ”  An open-ended question allows the answer to take whatever from the respondent chooses: “ What do you think about couples living together before they are married? ”  Why use one over the other?  Interviews:  A closed-ended question imposes a limit on the possible responses: for example, “ Are you for or against couples living together before they are married? ”  An open-ended question allows the answer to take whatever from the respondent chooses: “ What do you think about couples living together before they are married? ”  Why use one over the other?

35. Quantitative Methods  Surveys are questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population.  Survey research tends to look at large-scale social patterns and employs statistics and other mathematical means of analysis.  Most commonly used research method in sociology!  How come?  Surveys are questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population.  Survey research tends to look at large-scale social patterns and employs statistics and other mathematical means of analysis.  Most commonly used research method in sociology!  How come?

36. Quantitative Methods (cont)  Many experiments involve using an experimental group, which is the part of the test group that receives the experimental treatment, and a control group, which is the part of the test group that is allowed to continue without intervention so that it can be compared with the experimental group.

37. Quantitative Methods (cont)  Experiments are formal tests of specific variables and effects that are performed in a controlled setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled.  Used to demonstrate cause and effect  Least commonly used method in sociology  How come?  Experiments are formal tests of specific variables and effects that are performed in a controlled setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled.  Used to demonstrate cause and effect  Least commonly used method in sociology  How come?

38. Quantitative Methods (cont)  A researcher will investigate whether an independent variable (IV) causes changes in the dependent variable (DV).  IV comes first (time order)  DV is effected by the IV; comes after the IV in time  A researcher will investigate whether an independent variable (IV) causes changes in the dependent variable (DV).  IV comes first (time order)  DV is effected by the IV; comes after the IV in time

39. Existing Sources  Existing Sources refer to any data that has already been collected by earlier researchers and is available for future research.  This can include sources such as census data, newspapers, photography, and cultural artifacts.  Using existing data is usually less involved than collecting original data and also gives researchers access to distant places and times.  Existing Sources refer to any data that has already been collected by earlier researchers and is available for future research.  This can include sources such as census data, newspapers, photography, and cultural artifacts.  Using existing data is usually less involved than collecting original data and also gives researchers access to distant places and times.

40. Section 4: Scientific Method and Ethics

41. Steps for Doing Research The scientific method involves the pursuit of knowledge in a systematic way. Most sociologists follow this method, but not always mechanically.scientific method

42. Steps for Doing Research (cont.) The steps are as follows: –Identify the Problem—the researcher chooses an object or topic to study. –Review the Literature—she then conducts a literature search. –Formulate Hypotheses—she forms a hypothesis, or testable statement of relationships among well-defined variables. hypothesis

43. Steps for Doing Research (cont.) –Develop a Research Design—the researcher then states the procedures she will follow for collecting and analyzing data. –Collect Data—this involves either asking people questions, observing behavior, or analyzing existing materials and records. –Analyze Data—at this point, the researcher determines if the hypothesis can be supported.

44. Steps for Doing Research (cont.) –State Findings and Conclusions—finally, she shares her methods and findings with others so that they too can learn.

45. The Scientific Method

46. Variables and Correlations (cont.) A correlation is a measure of how things are related to one another.correlation –Positive correlation—if both the independent and dependent variable change in the same direction. –Negative correlation—if the variables change in the opposite direction.

47. Positive and Negative Correlations

48. The Nature of Causation Causation is a concept that means that events occur in predictable, nonrandom ways.Causation Sociologists believe that an event occurs as a result of several factors working in combination, or multiple causation.multiple causation

49. Standards for Showing Causation Standard 1: Two variables must be correlated. Standard 2: All other possible factors must be taken into account; the fact that two events are correlated does not mean that one causes the other.

50. The Utility of Measurement For a measurement to be useful, it must be reliable and valid. Reliability refers to consistency in measurement. Validity means precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure. There are two types of measurement Nominal: expresses the essence of an idea in words Operational: expresses the essence of an idea in terms that can be measured. For a measurement to be useful, it must be reliable and valid. Reliability refers to consistency in measurement. Validity means precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure. There are two types of measurement Nominal: expresses the essence of an idea in words Operational: expresses the essence of an idea in terms that can be measured.

51. EthicsEthics  What are ethics?  What are common ethical issues that seem to surface in research?  When should ethical issues be considered?

52. Ethics  Ethics: principles for guiding decision making and reconciling conflicting values  People may disagree on ‘ethics’ because it is based on people's personal value systems  What one person considers to be good or right may be considered bad or wrong by another person  Ethics: principles for guiding decision making and reconciling conflicting values  People may disagree on ‘ethics’ because it is based on people's personal value systems  What one person considers to be good or right may be considered bad or wrong by another person

53. Research Ethics Code of Ethics: first published by ASA in 1971 1.Maintain objectivity and integrity in research 2.Respect subject’s right to privacy and dignity 3.Protect subjects from personal harm 4.Preserve confidentiality 5.Seek informed consent 6.Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance 7.Disclose all sources of financial support

54. CASE: ZIMBARDO'S PRISON SIMULATION  was a study by psychologist Philip Zimbardo in 1972 that took Stanford University undergrads and made some of them guards and some of them prisoners in a mock underground dungeon for a planned two week stay.  The experiment had to be cancelled after six days because by then, the student-guards became quite sadistic, really getting into their roles. The prisoners were also becoming quite mental.  The experiment tells a story about psychological harm and informed consent, since the subjects did not know what they were getting into.  was a study by psychologist Philip Zimbardo in 1972 that took Stanford University undergrads and made some of them guards and some of them prisoners in a mock underground dungeon for a planned two week stay.  The experiment had to be cancelled after six days because by then, the student-guards became quite sadistic, really getting into their roles. The prisoners were also becoming quite mental.  The experiment tells a story about psychological harm and informed consent, since the subjects did not know what they were getting into.