1. The Emergentist Approach To Language As Embodied in Connectionist Networks James L. McClelland Stanford University

2. Some Simple Sentences The man liked the book. The boy loved the sun. The woman hated the rain.

3. The Standard Approach: Units and Rules Sentences Clauses and phrases Words Morphemes Phonemes S -> NP VP VP-> Tense V (NP) Tense V -> V+{past} V -> like, love, hate… N -> man, boy, sun… man -> /m/ /ae/ /n/ {past} -> ed ed -> /t/ or /d/ or /^d/ ‡ ‡ depends on context

4. What happens with exceptions?

5. Standard Approach to the Past Tense We form the past tense by using a (simple) rule. If an item is an exception, the rule is blocked. –So we say ‘took’ instead of ‘taked’ If you’ve never seen an item before, you use the rule If an item is an exception, but you forget the exceptional past tense, you apply the rule Predictions: –Regular inflection of ‘nonce forms’ This man is blinging. Yesterday he … This girl is tupping. Yesterday she … –Over-regularization errors: Goed, taked, bringed

6. The Emergentist Approach Language (like perception, etc) arises from the interactions of neurons, each of which operates according to a common set of simple principles of processing, representation and learning. Units and rules are useful to approximately describe what emerges from these interactions but have no mechanistic or explanatory role in language processing, language change, or language learning.

7. An Emergentist Theory: Natural Selection No grand design Organisms produce offspring with random differences (mating helps with this) Forces of nature favor those best suited to survive Survivors leave more offspring, so their traits are passed on The full range of the animal kingdom including all the capabilities of the human mind emerge from these very basic principles

8. An Emergentist/Connectionist Approach to the Past Tense Knowledge is in connections Experience causes connections to change Sensitivity to regularities emerges

9. The RM Model Learns from verb [root, past tense] pairs –[Like, liked]; [love, loved]; [carry, carried]; [take, took] Present and past are represented as patterns of activation over units that stand for phonological features.

10. Examples of ‘wickelfeatures’ in the verb ‘baked’ Starts with a stop followed by a vowel Has a long vowel preceded by a stop and followed by a stop Ends with a dental stop preceded by a velar stop Ends with an unvoiced sound preceded by another unvoiced sound

12. A Pattern Associator Network Pattern representing sound of the verb’s past tense Pattern representing the sound of the verb root Matrix of connections Summed input p(a=1)

13. Learning rule for the Pattern Associator network For each output unit: –Determine activity of the unit based on its input. –If the unit is active when target is not: Reduce each weight coming into the unit from each active input unit. –If the unit is inactive when the target is active: Increase the weight coming into the unit from each active input unit. Each connection weight adjustment is very small –Learning is gradual and cumulative

14. Most frequent past tenses in English: –Felt –Had –Made –Got –Gave –Took –Came –Went –Looked –Needed Trained with top ten words only. Here’s where 400 more words were introduced Over-regularization errors in the RM network

15. Some features of the model Regulars co-exist with exceptions. The model produces the regular past for most unfamiliar test items. The model captures the different subtypes among the regulars: –like-liked –love-loved –hate-hated The model is sensitive to the no-change pattern among irregulars: –hit-hit –cut-cut –hide-hid

16. Additional characteristics The model exploits gangs of related exceptions. –dig-dug –cling-clung –swing-swung The ‘regular pattern’ infuses exceptions as well as regulars: –say-said, do-did –have-had –keep-kept, sleep-slept –Burn-burnt –Teach-taught

17. Extensions As was stated 2-3 times throughout the quarter, networks that used fixed inputs and outputs without hidden units in between are limited  So subsequent models have relied on intermediate layers of units between inputs and outputs. The principles of the model apply to other forms of information, not only phonological information.  If semantic as well as phonological information about an item is available as part of the input, then the model will exploit semantic as well as phonological similarity (as we argue humans do). One can re-formulate the learning problem as one involving a speaker and a hearer. Here the learning problem for the speaker is formulated as: –Produce an output that will allow the listener to construct the message you wish to transmit (e.g. hit + past; read + present) –Keep the output as short as possible, as long as it can be understood  This causes networks to create a special kind of irregular form, which we will call reduced regulars: Did, Made, Had, Said

18. Lupyan & McClelland (2003) Model of Past Tense Learning Weights in the network are adjusted using an error correcting rule –so that the network learns to map phonological input onto specified target outputs Activations of input units are also adjusted –to ensure that the input contains the information needed to produce the output –to allow the input to be as simple as possible Initial input patterns are fully regular High frequency items are presented more often during training Because the network weights are stronger for these items, the network can afford to reduce the input for these high frequency items Phonological Input Subject to Reduction Semantic Target Pattern Corresponding to Intended Meaning

19. Simulation of Emergence of Reduced Regulars In English, frequent items are less likely to be regular. Also, d/t items are less likely to be regular. This emerged in our simulation. While the past tense is usually one phoneme longer than present, this is less true for the high frequency past tense items. Reduction of high frequency past tenses affects a phoneme other than the word final /d/ or /t/.

20. Key Features of the Past Tense model No lexical entries and no rules No problem of rule induction or grammar selection