. 3-1 Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development Chapter 3 Methods For Studying Development

. Methods follow on from theoretical view Theoretical frameworks are like lenses –Each one giving a different perspective on the world –With its unique interpretations Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-2

. Theories may have different basic assumptions Ontology refers to the nature of what can be known Epistemology refers to what is it possible to know, given the limitations of what our measuring tools are –Developmental theorists rely on empirical (real-world) knowledge, such as learning through observation Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-3

. Scientific method The 'classic' means of doing research Observation is used to find objective facts Information is gathered in a systematic way Findings of the research must be verifiable (able to be questioned by others and tested for accuracy) Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-4

. Research studies collect information (‘data’) Types of data: –Quantitative –Qualitative Data are analysed to look for patterns –The ‘findings’ of a study are based on interpretations of the data Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-5

. Key aspects of research Reliability –Are the findings replicable (repeatable)? –Would other researchers get the same results? Validity –Are the findings truthful and accurate? –Do the findings really mean something? Generalisability –Do the findings apply to a wider group than the participants in the study (e.g. to similar children or adults)? Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-6

. Importance of culture in research design Does the research describe the cultural setting from an insider's viewpoint (the ‘emic’ approach)? Or from an ‘objective’ point of view imagined to be outside culture (‘etic’ approach)? Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-7

. Developmental research designs (plans) Schaie's (1965) three developmental factors: –Age of participants –Cohort (a group of people of similar age at a particular time in history, such as Baby Boomers) –Time in history in which study is carried out (e.g. 2010) Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-8

. Research design: unfoldings or snapshots? Longitudinal studies follow people over time to see how behaviours or understandings of people unfold across time Examples: –Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health & Development Study of over 1,000 children from birth to young adulthood –‘Does children's aggressive play change as they grow older?’ Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-9

. Research design (cont.) Cross-sectional studies compare two or more age groups at one point in time to give a snapshot of behaviours or understandings of people at different ages Example: – ‘Do older children play more or less aggressively than younger children?’ Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-10

. How to choose between popular research methods Research designs are carefully planned after researchers have clarified the key questions that the research is designed to answer The particular question the researcher wants to answer will guide them to the method appropriate to answer it Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-11

. Scientific experiments Terms in the research question are operationalised –e.g. ‘happiness’ could be defined as the number of smiles a person made in a 10-minute period The researcher manipulated a key factor (the independent variable) to see its effects on some measure (the dependent variable) The independent variable may be designed as a comparison of an experimental group given a treatment and a control group not given the treatment being studied –To make a fair comparison, people would be assigned to the groups randomly (without bias) –e.g. testing the effects of diet (with eating baked beans or not as the independent variable) on lifting weights (kilograms lifted as the dependent variable) Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-12

. Scientific experiments (cont.) Observation is used to find objective facts Information is gathered in a systematic way Findings of the research must be verifiable (able to be questioned by others and tested for their accuracy) Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-13

. Observation of behaviour Precise, detailed recording of what the researcher sees and hears while viewing participants Types of qualitative observations Anecdotal recording –Detailed informal notes on events –May focus on several people in context –More formal notes are called fieldnotes Running Records –Continuous notes on a particular person (usually a child) in a period of time –Example: Following a particular child around on their first trip to the zoo to see how they react to various situations Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-14

. More targeted observations Time sampling: –Observations carried out during set intervals of time (e.g. 3-minute segments) –Segments are randomly sprinkled through observation period –Occurrences of concrete actions are noted Coded Observations –Behaviours are described as simple categories e.g. various supportive acts might be noted by the code ‘helping’ –Frequencies are noted for each code in the time period under study Event Recording –Focus is on a particular kind of event (e.g. bullying) –Entire event is described by the observer Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-15

. Written questions and oral interviews Interviews –Conversation guided by questions created by researcher beforehand –Questions can be: Structured (formal, pre-determined) Semi-structured (partially set ahead of time for all participants) or Unstructured (only the general focus of the question is the same for all participants) –Kanohi ki te kanohi (face to face) Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-16

. Questionnaires and scales List of written questions that participants fill in –Example: NZ Census form Scaled tests –More formal than a questionnaire –Created by researchers based on study of participants for purpose of identifying likely responses ahead of time –Example: Progressive Achievement Tests (PATs) Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-17

. In-depth qualitative research Case Study –Focus on one person, family, group or situation –Mixed methods used to describe the 'case' Examples: interviews, observations Ethnography –Writing (graph) of a culture (ethnos) –Very detailed picture of experience of an entire group of people in a setting at particular time Example: study of a school's culture Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-18

. Research for positive change Action Research –Research planned with participants –Results of research are fed back to participants to help change practice Example: A teacher examines an anti- bullying programme, reflecting on findings in order to make future change Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-19

. Considering inclusive research methods Treating people as participants in research, rather than objects of research Considering insiders' studies of their own experiences –Example: Indigenous research carried out by indigenous researchers Importance of the ethical grounding of all research –University research is vetted by ethics committees that consider benefits and potential harm to participants –Researchers are accountable for their research practices Copyright  2010 McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd PPTs to accompany Claiborne & Drewery, Human Development 3-20