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Descriptive Methods ◦ Observation ◦ Survey Research Experimental Methods ◦ Independent Groups Designs ◦ Repeated Measures Designs ◦ Complex Designs Applied Research ◦ Single-Case Designs and Small-n Research ◦ Quasi-Experimental Designs and Program Evaluation
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Observation Survey Research
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SAMPLING BEHAVIOR ◦ Time Sampling ◦ Situation Sampling OBSERVATIONAL METHODS DIRECT OBSERVATIONAL METHODS ◦ Observation without Intervention ◦ Observation with Intervention INDIRECT (UNOBTRUSIVE) OBSERVATIONAL METHODS ◦ Physical Traces ◦ Archival Records RECORDING BEHAVIOR ◦ Comprehensive Records of Behavior ◦ Selected Records of Behavior ANALYSIS OF OBSERVATIONAL DATA ◦ Qualitative Data Analysis ◦ Quantitative Data Analysis Observation
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Observations ◦ Everyday gestures, expressions, postures - “universal signals” biasness, no record ◦ Scientific precisely defined conditions systematic and objective careful record keeping
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Observations ◦ Across different situations and at different times ◦ representativeness – Generalization - External validity Time & event sampling ◦ choosing time intervals ◦ systematically or randomly ◦ Events that happen infrequently Situation Sampling ◦ different locations ◦ under different circumstances/conditions ◦ enhances the external validity
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Naturalistic observation ◦ to describe behavior as it normally occurs and to examine relationships among variables. ◦ helps to establish the external validity of laboratory findings. When ethical and moral considerations prevent experimental control, naturalistic observation is an important research strategy.
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The three methods of observation with intervention ◦ participant observation, structured observation, and the field experiment Participant Observation ◦ Allow to observe – things not usually open to scientific observation Reactivity ◦ individuals change their behavior when they know they are being Structured observations ◦ set up to record behaviors, difficult to observe otherwise Field experiment ◦ Manipulation of independent variables in a natural setting
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Advantage-nonreactive Physical Traces ◦ Use traces reflect the physical evidence of use (or nonuse) of items natural Vs controlled use ◦ Products are the creations, constructions, or other artifacts of behavior
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Archival records ◦ public and private documents describing the activities of individuals, groups, institutions, and governments, ◦ Running records: records that are continuously kept and updated e.g., records of academic life ◦ Records of specific, episodic events: describe specific events or episodes in ones life e.g., birth certificates, marriage, licenses Potential problems ◦ selective deposit, selective survival, and the possibility of spurious relationships.
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How the results of a study are ultimately summarized, analyzed, and reported depends on how behavioral observations are initially recorded ◦ Classification of behaviors is done after the observations As a general rule, records should be made during or as soon as possible after behavior is observed Field notes -observer’s running descriptions of the participants, events, settings, and behaviors of interest
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USES OF SURVEYS CHARACTERISTICS OF SURVEYS SAMPLING IN SURVEY RESEARCH ◦ Basic Terms of Sampling ◦ Approaches to Sampling SURVEY METHODS ◦ Mail Surveys ◦ Personal Interviews ◦ Telephone Interviews ◦ Internet Surveys SURVEY-RESEARCH DESIGNS ◦ Cross-Sectional Design ◦ Successive Independent Samples Design ◦ Longitudinal Design QUESTIONNAIRES ◦ Questionnaires as Instruments ◦ Reliability and Validity of Self-Report Measures ◦ Constructing a Questionnaire THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT SURVEY RESEARCH ◦ Correspondence Between Reported and Actual Behavior ◦ Correlation and Causality Survey Research
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To assess people’s thoughts, opinions, and feelings. Specific and limited in scope or more global in their goals. Determine biasness: examine the survey procedures and analyses.
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Selection of sample (or samples) Predetermined set of questions
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Response set/style ◦ Response acquiescence (yea-saying) ◦ Response deviation (nay-saying) ◦ Social desirability Volunteer problem ◦ Volunteers differ from non-volunteers ◦ More intelligent, better educated, more cooperative
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Sampling issues ◦ Random sample is expensive to collect ◦ Stratified sample Population is divided into smaller units and random sampling is done from the smaller units Have the selected samples represent the population 40% from California or 65% female or 22% Hispanic
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Research Objectives ◦ Attitudes and beliefs ◦ Facts and demographics ◦ Behaviors Wording ◦ Simplicity ◦ Multiple component questions ◦ Negative wording
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Answer format ◦ Open-ended versus forced choice Answer options ◦ Format ◦ End points ◦ Symmetry ◦ Age/mental ability/physical ability/experience
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Guttman Scales (Cumulative Scales) ◦ Coefficient of reproducibility Ratio of number of appropriate responses to total number of responses % of responses that are completely cumulative Guttman said.90 was minimal acceptable level Likert Scales (Summated Rating Scales) ◦ Reverse scoring ◦ Coefficient of correlation Do the questions match the overall score?
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Other scales ◦ Error choice method ◦ Semantic differential ◦ Bogardus Social Distance Scale Self report method ◦ Rely on participant to provide data ◦ Benefit: ease ◦ Cost: not a direct test
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Personal administration Mail surveys ◦ Response rate Internet surveys Other technologies
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Interviewer bias Face-to-face Telephone Focus groups
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Cross-sectional method ◦ Take a large sample of various ages and test them at the same time Longitudinal method ◦ Follow same participants over a period of time Time-lag design ◦ Subjects of a particular age are tested at different time periods Cross-sequential design ◦ Test several different age groups at different times
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