Personal and Social Development Chapter 3 Personal and Social Development

Personality Development

Factors Influencing Personality Biological temperament Environmental parenting culture

Temperament General predisposition to respond in particular ways to one’s physical and social environments genetically based persist across lifespan includes effortful control: ability to inhibit impulses in order to think/act more productively

Parents’ Behaviors Attachment Parenting style strong, affectionate bond between child and caregiver Parenting style authoritative authoritarian permissive neglectful or abusive

Cultural Expectations & Socialization Children learn behaviors and belief systems of a long-standing social group from parents from teachers Cultures endorse different values and behaviors culture shock

Personality Traits: The “Big 5” OCEAN Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism

Sense of Self

Self-Assessment Self-concept Self-esteem assessments of one’s own characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses Self-esteem judgments and feelings about one’s own value and worth

Factors Influencing Sense of Self Previous performance self-efficacy based on success and failure Behaviors of others comparison of self with peers others’ expectations and feedback Group memberships and achievements peers, family, culture

Developmental Progression Childhood describe physical, concrete characteristics positive sense of self, high self-efficacy Early adolescence describe abstract traits self-esteem often drops imaginary audience, personal fable Late adolescence multifaceted sense of self, identity

Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development Trust vs. mistrust (infancy) Is the world a trustworthy place? Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (toddler) Am I capable of doing things on my own? Initiative vs. guilt (preschool) Is my growing independence supported?

Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development Industry vs. inferiority (elementary school) Am I encouraged to make and do things, and then praised for my accomplishments? Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence) Who am I? What do I believe in? What path will I choose for myself?

Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development Intimacy vs. isolation (young adulthood) Can I fully commit to another person? Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood) What can I contribute to the next generation? Integrity vs. despair (late adulthood) Do I have regrets, or am I satisfied with how my life went?

Identity Status Based on patterns of behavior (Marcia) diffusion no commitments to career or belief system, little exploratory behavior foreclosure firm commitment to occupation and belief system, no exploration of other alternatives moratorium searching for an identity, considering options available for career and belief system identity achievement commitment to career and belief system following period of moratorium

Diversity in Development Gender boys may have higher self-esteem tend to reflect stereotypes Culture and ethnicity group vs individual identity ethnic identity

Peer Relationships and Interpersonal Understanding

Peers Arena for learning & practicing social skills Provide companionship & emotional support Serve as socialization agents peer influence can be good and bad self-socialization also occurs

Friends Emotionally invested in relationship Similar in age & sex Similar interests Friendship helps develop perspective-taking and other social skills

Larger Social Groups Cliques Crowds Gangs exclusive in nature 3 to 10 members Crowds larger than cliques, not as exclusive share activities, attitudes, or background can take form of subculture Gangs cohesive group characterized by initiation rites, distinctive clothing, & other markers

Romantic Relationships Usually evolve from crush to real love Often based on attractiveness, social status Benefits companionship, affection, and security opportunities to experiment with new social skills and interpersonal behaviors May be confusing in adolescence sexual feelings & intimacy gay, lesbian, & bisexual teens

Popularity & Social Isolation Popular students may or may not have high status considered kind, trustworthy by peers Rejected students considered undesirable social partners Controversial students some peers like, some dislike Neglected students almost seem “invisible” to peers

Social Cognition Ability to think about how other people are likely to think, act, and react Perspective-taking involves mirror neurons theory of mind social information processing

Development of Theory of Mind Childhood some awareness of others’ “inner worlds” desires, beliefs, intentions can differ people can mask true feelings, thoughts Early adolescence people can have mixed feelings recursive thinking Late adolescence “budding psychologist”

Aggression Actions intended to harm others physical vs. relational proactive vs. reactive Factors influencing aggression genetic predisposition poor perspective-taking skills misinterpretation of social cues prevalence of self-serving goals ineffective social problem-solving strategies beliefs about appropriateness and effectiveness of aggression

Technology & Peer Relationships Cell phones, texting, social networking sites Benefits can enhance self-esteem provides connectedness with peers increase in psychological well-being Risks relational aggression & cyberbullying misrepresentation of identity

Diversity Issues Students with disabilities Gender may be delayed in development of social cognition Gender differences in group composition, aggression style, reading social cues Culture and ethnicity teasing as teaching tool emphasis on group harmony

Promoting Healthy Relationships Provide opportunities for social interaction, cooperation Help students interpret social situations Teach specific social skills, provide opportunities for practice, give feedback Promote understanding, communication, interaction Explain what bullying is and why it cannot be tolerated Help change the reputations of formerly antisocial students Create a general climate of respect for others

Moral and Prosocial Development

Moral & Prosocial Development Prosocial behavior aimed at benefiting others more than oneself sharing, helping, comforting Morality general standards about right and wrong honesty, fairness, concern for others

Developmental Trends Early use of internal standards to evaluate behavior Increasing distinction between moral and conventional transgressions Increasing ability to respond emotionally to others’ harm and distress Reasoning about moral issues becomes increasingly abstract and flexible

Kohlberg’s Theory Children construct standards for right & wrong Moral dilemma: In Europe, a woman was near death from a rare form of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her, a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The druggist was charging $2,000, ten times what the drug cost him to make. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about half of what the drug cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said no. So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. (Kohlberg, 1984, p. 186)

Level & Stage Age Range Examples Preconventional Stage 1: Avoidance of punishment Stage 2: Exchange of favors Preschool – elementary; some junior high; few high school students Stage 1: “I would cheat if I knew I wouldn‘t get caught.” Stage 2: “I’ll let you copy mine if you do my homework.” Conventional Stage 3: Good child Stage 4: Law and order Few older elementary children, some junior high, many high school students (Stage 4 does not typically appear until high school) Stage 3: “I’m not going to tell because I want her to like me.” Stage 4: “You can’t do that because the teacher said no.” Postconventional Stage 5: Social contract Stage 6: Universal ethical principle Rarely seen before college (stage 6 is extremely rare) Stage 5: “In this case, the rule may be wrong.” Stage 6: “You shouldn’t lie because it violates the Golden Rule.”

Weaknesses in Kohlberg’s Theory Moral issues (e.g., causing harm) conflated with social conventions (e.g., having rules to help society run smoothly) Helping and showing compassion for others overlooked Underestimation of young children’s abilities Importance of situational factors overlooked

Factors Affecting Moral Development Level of moral reasoning People who exhibit more advanced moral reasoning behave more morally. Guilt, perspective-taking, empathy Prosocial children are often very empathic and have above-average perspective-taking skills. Personal motives Children’s needs and goals come into play. Self-perceptions Commitment to moral values is integrated into the overall identity.

Factors Affecting Development General cognitive development perspective-taking ability Adults’ reasons and rationales inductive discipline Disequilibrium exposure to moral issues and dilemmas Sense of self high self-efficacy for helping behaviors Personal needs & goals

Diversity in Development Gender girls more likely to experience guilt, shame, empathy care vs. justice orientation (C. Gilligan) Culture & ethnicity most value individual rights and concern for others different expectations for duty to help different definitions of moral/conventional transgressions

In the Classroom Encourage perspective taking, empathy, prosocial behaviors Explain why some behaviors are unacceptable actively explain and discourage cheating Model moral and prosocial behavior Incorporate moral issues and dilemmas into classroom discussions Encourage involvement in community service

The Big Picture

The Big Picture Students’ personal, social, and moral understandings are self-constructed. Development involves changes in behavior, social cognition, emotional reactions. Social interaction provides the impetus for advancement. Development is best fostered within a warm, structured, supportive environment.