Chapter 3 Learning and Ability

Objective 1. Concept of Learning. 2. Theories of Learning. 3. Biographical Characteristics. 4. Different types of abilities. 2

LEARNING 3 Learning Involves change Is relatively permanent It is concerned with behaviour Is acquired through experience Learning Involves change Is relatively permanent It is concerned with behaviour Is acquired through experience

THEORIES OF LEARNING 4 It was conducted by a Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov in the Key Concepts Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response Key Concepts Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response Ivan Pavlov

5 Thus we can say that a conditioned response involves building up an association between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. When the stimuli, one compelling and other neutral, are paired, the neutral one becomes a conditioned stimulus and so takes on the properties of unconditioned stimulus. Classical conditioning is passive. Something happens and we react in a specific way. It is elicited in response to a specific and identifiable event.

6 Key Concepts Reflexive (unlearned) behavior Voluntary (learned) behavior Reinforcement Key Concepts Reflexive (unlearned) behavior Voluntary (learned) behavior Reinforcement It was propounded by a Harvard psychologist B F Skinner. This is based on the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. The tendency to repeat such behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behaviour. B.F.Skinner

7 Key Concepts 1.Attention processes 2.Retention processes 3.Motor reproduction processes 4.Reinforcement processes Key Concepts 1.Attention processes 2.Retention processes 3.Motor reproduction processes 4.Reinforcement processes It acknowledges the existence of observational learning and the importance of perception in learning

8 Key Concepts Reinforcement is required to change behavior. Some rewards are more effective than others. The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence. Key Concepts Reinforcement is required to change behavior. Some rewards are more effective than others. The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence. Systematic attempt is made to change individuals’ behavior by directing their learning in graduated steps. Shaping Behavior

TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT 9 Positive reinforcement Providing a reward for a desired behavior. Negative reinforcement Process of having a reward taken away as a consequence of a undesired behavior. Punishment Causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behavior. Extinction An alternative to punishing undesirable behaviour – the attempt to weaken behavior by attaching no consequences (either positive or negative) to it. It is equivalent to ignoring the behavior.

Positive Reinforcement e.g.: you receive bonus after successfully completing important task Negative Reinforcement e.g.: scholarship is withdraw from the student who has not done well in examination Punishment e.g.: you are threatened with demotion or discharge after treating client badly. Extinction e.g.: mischievous student disturbing the class, asking for attention. 10 Desirable Behaviour Undesirable Behaviour Event is Added Event is Removed 1.Both Positive and Negative Reinforcement results strengthen responses and increases the probability of repetition 2.Both Punishment and Extinction weaken the behaviour and tend to decrease its subsequent frequency.

Schedules of Reinforcement 11

Schedules of Reinforcement 12 E X H I B I T Fixed-ratio

Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement 13 E X H I B I T 3.3.1

Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d) 14 E X H I B I T 3.3.1

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 15 Problem-solving Model Identify critical behaviors Develop baseline data Identify behavioral consequences Developing and implementing an intervention strategy Evaluate performance improvement Problem-solving Model Identify critical behaviors Develop baseline data Identify behavioral consequences Developing and implementing an intervention strategy Evaluate performance improvement OB Mod ( Luthans, F. 1975) A well known system of motivation, is an attempt to change behavior by manipulating rewards and punishment.

SPECIFIC ORGANIZATIONAL APPLICATIONS 16 Using Lotteries to reduce Absenteeism Ex. Continental Airlines Credits the lottery with significantly reducing the company’s absent rate (variable-ratio). Well Pay versus Sick Pay Ex. Midwest organizations in USA Reduce absenteeism by rewarding attendance, not absence. Ex. Forbes Magazine.

CONT… 17 Employee Discipline The use of punishment can be counter-productive. Social-learning theory Improve training effectiveness. Self-management Reduces the need for external management control.

BIOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS 18 Gender, Age, Marital status and Tenure are the variables that have an impact on employee productivity, absence, turnover and satisfaction

A. GENDER There are few, if any, important differences between men and women that will affect their job performance, including the areas of: Women are more willing to conform to authority, and men are more aggressive and more likely than women to have expectations of success. There is a difference between men and women in terms of preference for work schedules. Absence and turnover rates – Problem-solving – Analytical skills – Competitive drive – Motivation – Sociability – Learning ability 19

20 B. AGE 1.The relationship between Age And Job Performance is increasing in importance. 2.Employers’ perceptions are mixed. 3.It is tempting to assume that Age is inversely related to Absenteeism. 4.Belief that Productivity Declines with Age and that individual skills decay over time. 5.The relationship between Age and Job Satisfaction is mixed.

21 C. Marital Status Research consistently indicates that married employees have fewer absences, undergo less turnover, and are more satisfied with their jobs than are their unmarried co-workers (Garrrison and Muchinsky, 1977) Besides single or married statuses, there is difference between divorce, domestic partnering, etc.

22 D. Tenure The issue of the impact of job seniority on job performance has been subject to misconceptions and speculations. Extensive reviews of the seniority-productivity relationship have been conducted: There is a positive relationship between tenure and job productivity. There is a negative relationship between tenure to absence. Tenure is also a potent variable in explaining turnover. Tenure has consistently been found to be negatively related to turnover and has been suggested as one of the single best predictors of turnover. The evidence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positively related.

ABILITY 23

DIMENSIONS OF INTELLECTUAL ABILITY 24 Number aptitude – Ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic. Ex. Accountant Verbal comprehension – Read write speaking ability. Ex. Senior Manager Perceptual speed – Identify similarities and differences quickly. Ex. Investigators Inductive reasoning – Logical sequence drawing. Ex. Market Researcher Number aptitude – Ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic. Ex. Accountant Verbal comprehension – Read write speaking ability. Ex. Senior Manager Perceptual speed – Identify similarities and differences quickly. Ex. Investigators Inductive reasoning – Logical sequence drawing. Ex. Market Researcher E X H I B I T 3.6.2

Cont… 25 Deductive reasoning – Ability to use logic and assess the implications of the argument. Ex. Supervisors Spatial visualization – Ability to imagine. Ex. Interior decorator Memory – Ability to retain and recall past experience Ex. Sale person remembering customer’s name Deductive reasoning – Ability to use logic and assess the implications of the argument. Ex. Supervisors Spatial visualization – Ability to imagine. Ex. Interior decorator Memory – Ability to retain and recall past experience Ex. Sale person remembering customer’s name E X H I B I T 3.6.2

26 Multiple Intelligences was developed by Gardener. Eight different intelligences: 1. Linguistic intelligence (“word smart”) 2. Logical-mathematical intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”) 3. Spatial intelligence (“picture smart”) 4. Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence (“body smart”) 5. Musical intelligence (“music smart”) 6. Interpersonal intelligence (“people smart”) 7. Intrapersonal intelligence (“self smart”) 8. Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”)

PHYSICAL ABILITY 27

NINE PHYSICAL ABILITIES 28 Other Factors Body coordination Balance Stamina Other Factors Body coordination Balance Stamina Strength Factors Dynamic strength Trunk strength Static strength Explosive strength Strength Factors Dynamic strength Trunk strength Static strength Explosive strength Flexibility Factors Extent flexibility Dynamic flexibility Flexibility Factors Extent flexibility Dynamic flexibility E X H I B I T 3.6.2

THE ABILITY - JOB FIT 29 Ability-Job Fit Employee’s Abilities Job’s Ability Requirements

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