CHAPTER 6 Motivation

Motivation Motivation is an inner state that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior. It gets learners moving, points them in a particular direction, and keeps them going.

Motivation involves the processes that energize, direct, and sustain behavior.

AFFECT Affect is a close partner of motivation. It is the feelings, emotions, and general moods that learners bring to bear on a task.

A. People like to believe they can perform an activity competently. A. Their self-confidence (or lack thereof) related to that activity affects their behavior.

Perspectives on Motivation The humanistic perspective stresses students’ capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose their own destinies, and positive qualities.

Basic Human Needs  Arousal.  Competence and self-worth.  Control over the course of one’s life, or self-determination.  A feeling of connection to other people, or relatedness.

Perspectives on Motivation The behavioral perspective emphasizes external rewards and punishments as keys in determining student motivation.

Perspectives on Motivation The cognitive perspective focuses on students’ competence motivation, their internal motivation to achieve, their attributions, and their beliefs that they can effectively control their environment.

Perspectives on Motivation The social perspective stresses the need for affiliation or relatedness that involves establishing, maintaining, and restoring warm, close, personal relationships.

How Motivation Affects Behavior, Cognition, and Learning Motivation directs behavior toward particular goals. ▪ Motivation increases effort and persistence in activities. ▪ Motivation affects cognitive processes. ▪ Motivation determines reinforcing and punishing consequences. ▪ Motivation often leads to improved performance. → Intrinsic motivation is more beneficial than extrinsic motivation. → Intrinsic motivation is more beneficial than extrinsic motivation. → Immediate environments influence intrinsic and extrinsic → Immediate environments influence intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. motivation.

Motivation, Teaching, and Learning Achievement Processes Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Attribution Mastery Motivation Self-Efficacy Goal-Setting, Planning, and Self-Monitoring Expectations

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsically Motivated Students Do something to obtain something else. Are influenced by rewards and punishments. Intrinsically Motivated Students Demonstrate self- determination by doing something for its own sake. Increase motivation when they are given some personal choice.

Optimal Experiences & Flow Flow occurs: When students develop a sense of mastery and are absorbed in a state of concentration while they engage in an activity. When students are challenged and perceive that they have a high degree of skill.

Theories of Motivation Cognitive

General Principles of Cognitive Factors in Motivation  Learners find some topics inherently interesting.  Learners want chances of success in voluntary activities to be reasonably good.  If chances of success are slim, learners will behave so that success is less likely.  Learners are more likely to devote time to activities that have value for them.  The nature of goals related to their academic achievement influence learners’ cognitive processes and behaviors.  Learners must juggle achievement goals with their many other goals.

General Principles  Learners identify what are, in their own minds, the likely causes of their successes and failures.  Learners’ attributions for past successes and failures affect their future performance.  With age, learners increasingly attribute their successes and failures to ability rather than to effort.  Over time, learners acquire a general attributional style.  Culture influences cognitive factors underlying motivation.  Cognitive factors underlying sustained motivation build up over time.

Attribution Theory Bernard Weiner Attribution theory: In their effort to make sense of their own behavior or performance, individuals are motivated to discover its underlying causes.

Locus: Students who perceive their success as being due to internal factors (i.e., effort) are more likely to have higher self-esteem. Stability: If a student attributes a positive outcome to a stable cause, there is an expectation of future success. Controllability: Failure due to external factors causes anger. Failure due to internal factors may cause guilt.

Attribution Theory

CAUSAL DIMENSIONS AttributionExamplesLocusStabilityControllability LuckSuccess: “It’s a good thing the teacher didn’t ask about learning theories.” Failure: “ I would have gotten an “A” if my dog hadn’t eaten my homework.” ExternalUnstable Uncontrollable Task Difficulty Success: “Essay exams are easy; I can always write enough to get a good grade.” Failure: “ I just can’t understand this language; why didn’t Shakespeare write in common English?” ExternalStable Uncontrollable

AttributionExamplesLocusStabilityControllability Innate (inborn) Ability Success: “I knew I’d make the audition for band; I’ve always been musically talented.” Failure: “ I expected this grade; my visual learning style is just not compatible with her lectures.” InternalStable Uncontrollable EffortSuccess: “It’s a good thing I stayed home and studied last night; it really paid off.” Failure: “ I spent too much time studying names and dates and not enough time studying causes.” Internal Unstable Controllable

Theories of Motivation Goal Theory

Goals? What goals?  People form goals for a variety of academic and non-academic pursuits.  An achievement goal includes both the reason to choose to do a task, and the standard by which people evaluate their own performance  Achievement Goals generally divided into two types: –Mastery –Performance  And two states –Approach –Avoidance

Mastery and Performance Goals  Can work together! –Mastery goals important during skill acquisition. Sometime imposed by teacher! –Performance Goals tend to promote interest once skills have been developed.

Mastery Goals – Approach state  Focus: mastering a task, learning, understanding  Standard: self-improvement, progress, deep understanding of a task.  OUTCOMES: –Intrinsic motivation, interest –Deep-level learning strategies to enhance understanding and recall –Preference for challenging tasks and moderate risk taking.

Mastery Goals – Avoidance State  Focus:avoiding misunderstanding, avoiding not learning or not mastering the material.  Standards: not being wrong, not performing incorrectly relative to the task  OUTCOMES: –Disorganized studying –Increased text anxiety –Negative feelings about failure

Performance Goals – Approach State  Focus: being superior, being the smartest, besting others.  Standards: getting best or highest grades, being best performer in class (comparing to the norm)  OUTCOMES: –Intrinsic motivation –Effective, but often superficial learning strategies –Low anxiety and positive self-efficacy

Performance Goals – Avoidance State  Focus: avoiding inferiority, not looking “stupid or dumb” in comparison to others.  Standards: not getting the worst grades, not being the lowest performer in the class (comparing to the norm).  OUTCOMES: –Surface level learning (memorizing, studying only what will be on the test. –self-defeating behaviors – not trying, procrastination, minimizing participation, excuses for incomplete work, sometimes cheating –Anxiety and negative feelings about failure.

Achievement Goal Orientation Helpless Orientation Students focus on their personal inadequacies Performance Orientation Students are concerned with the outcome rather than the process Mastery Orientation Students focus on the task rather than their abilityStudents focus on the task rather than their ability Generate solution-oriented strategiesGenerate solution-oriented strategies

Expectancy-Value Theory  What motivates students to participate in class, study, or completing homework?  Two Components: –Expectancy: students’ expectation for success (Can I do this task?)  Competency belief  Stereotype threat –Value: reasons for undertaking a task. (Do I want to do this task!)  Intrinsic value  Attainment value  Extrinsic, utility value

Implications for teachers

Self-Efficacy Make sure students are not overly aroused or anxious Provide students with support from positive adult and peer models Help students develop short- and long-term goals Teach specific strategies

Self-Regulation Encourage and help students …  Set both short- and long-term challenging goals  Manage time effectively, set priorities, and be organized  Monitor progress toward goals

Motivation, Teaching, and Learning Motivation, Relationships, and Sociocultural Contexts Social Motives Social Relationships Sociocultural Contexts

Social Relationships Motivation to Achieve Parents should provide the right amount of challenge in a positive environment and model achievement behavior. Peers with high achievement standards will support student achievement in others. Teachers optimize achievement when they provide challenging tasks in a supportive environment.

Sociocultural Contexts

Ethnicity There is DIVERSITY in achievement motivation within ethnic minority groups. There is DIVERSITY in achievement motivation within ethnic minority groups. Socio - economic Status (SES) When ethnicity and socioeconomic status (SES) are investigated in the same study, SES is often the better predictor of achievement. When ethnicity and socioeconomic status (SES) are investigated in the same study, SES is often the better predictor of achievement.

Motivation and Gender  Have higher competence beliefs in math and sports  Are more rambunctious  Receive more teacher attention, yet receive lower grades  List more career options  Have higher competence beliefs for English, reading, and social activities  Often experience conflicts between gender roles and achievement  Are more compliant, get less teacher attention, by middle school have lower self-esteem Females Males

Motivation, Teaching, and Learning Students with Achievement Problems Students Who Are Low- Achieving and Have Low Expectations for Success Students Who Protect Their Self-Worth by Avoiding Failure Students Who Procrastinate Students with High Anxiety Students Who Are Perfectionists Students Who Are Uninterested or Alienated

Students with Achievement Problems Protection of Self-Worth by Avoiding Failure Guide setting of realistic goals, strengthen link between effort and self-worth, and encourage positive self- perceptions Low Achievers with Low Expectations Provide reassurance and cognitive retraining, and reward effort and progress toward realistic goals High Anxiety Modify negative thoughts by engaging students in more positive, task- focused thoughts

Students with Achievement Problems Perfectionists Identify cost/benefits, decrease self- criticism, set realistic goals and time limits, and encourage acceptance of criticism Procrastinators Encourage acknowledgement of problem, assist in time management and task analysis, and teach behavioral and cognitive strategies for dealing with problem

Hard-to-Reach, Low-Achieving Students 1. Develop positive teacher-student relationships 2. Make school more interesting 3. Teach strategies to make learning enjoyable 4. Consider including a mentor