Chapter 6: Organizational Behavior 261 Gabrielle Durepos Learning in Organizations

Outline  Towards an understanding of learning  Different types of Learning  Classical Learning Theories:  The Behavioral Approach  The Cognitive Approach  The Social Learning Approach  Conclusions

Towards an understanding of Learning  A relatively permanent change in behavior or human capabilities  Results from possessing new:  knowledge  practice  experience

Different Types of Learning  Explicit Learning  Ordered knowledge  Can be communicated easily through people  Less subtle, can be codified  Example: Learning directions to your new office  Tacit Learning  Cannot be easily captured, measured or codified  Not easily communicated from one person to the next  More subtle, more implicit  We know more than we can say  Example: Learning how to drive a “standard car”

Different Types of Learning  Formal learning  University, College  Usually more explicit  Non-Formal learning  Usually a one time workshop; no formal qualification acquired  Usually more explicit  Informal learning  Conscious learning from everyday life  Usually more explicit  Incidental learning  Through activity; almost unconscious  Usually more tacit

Classical Learning Theories: The Behavioral Approach  Learning is understood as  A relatively permanent change in behavior or human capabilities  Occurring through interaction with the environment -- less concerned with cognitive process  Ivan Pavlov and Salivating Dogs  Referred to as the father of behaviorism  Learning as explained by classical conditioning Stimulus (bell) is introduced and creates no response from the subject (salivation) Stimulus (bell) is continuously paired with another phenomena (food); other phenomena (food) creates a response (dogs salivate) Other phenomena (food) is removed Stimulus (bell) is introduced and creates a response (dogs salivate)  Learning is explained as a long chain of conditioned reflexes

Classical Learning Theories: The Behavioral Approach  B.F. Skinner - Learning through reinforcement  Learning occurs as a result of the introduction or removal of consequences  There are four ways of introducing / removing consequences:  1. Positive reinforcement: We introduce a pleasant consequence to increase or maintain a wanted behavior Example – you receive a bonus after successfully completing a project  2. Negative reinforcement: We remove a unpleasant consequence to increase or maintain a wanted behavior Example – your supervisor stops criticizing you after your work improves  3. Punishment: We introduce an unpleasant consequence to decrease the frequency of a future behavior Example – you are threatened with a demotion after treating a client badly  4. Extinction: We do not introduce a consequence and the frequency of the desired behavior decreases

Classical Learning Theories: The Behavioral Approach  B.F. Skinner – Schedules of Reinforcement  Refers to WHEN the consequences should be introduced  Continuous reinforcement Every occurrence of the desired behavior is reinforced Desired behaviors are learned quickly Extinction occurs quickly when the reinforcer is removed  Fixed interval schedule Reinforcement or rewards are given after a fixed amount of time Reinforcement does not depend on a show of wanted behaviour Performance increases before reinforcement & slows down after Example - a bi-weekly pay schedule  Variable interval schedule Reinforcement or rewards are administered at varied / uneven time intervals Performance is usually steady Example – promotions, audits, praise

Classical Learning Theories: The Behavioral Approach  Criticisms of the behavioral approach:  Ignores individual internal mental state  Assumes that if others cannot observe a change then learning has not occurred  Ignores cognitive processes  Assumes that everyone learns in the same manner

Classical Learning Theories: The Cognitive Approach  Learning is understood:  As a cognitive process  As occurring independent of the environment  By theorists as how individuals perceive, evaluate feedback, represent, store and use information  Wolfgang Köhler & Insightful Learning  Animal problem solving does not develop incrementally through ‘stimulus-response’  Learning Involves insight / understanding into the whole problem at hand Occurs suddenly Is retained Is done through feedback, feedback must be processed Can be transferred to other situations, can reframe previous learning

Classical Learning Theories: The Cognitive Approach  Criticisms of the cognitive approach:  Assumes that learning is done independent of environment  We have way of observing the change in behavior  Assumes that everyone may process information in the same manner

Classical Learning Theories: The Social Learning Approach  Individuals learn through:  Observing others (model) and modeling the behaviors of those who they perceive as credible and knowledgeable  Observing the consequences that others experience  Being part of a “community”  Four interrelated processes of learning: Attention: actively attending to the behavior of the “model” Memory: remembering the observed behavior Motor: practicing the observed behavior, mimicking Motivation: the drive to practice a learned skill

Classical Learning Theories: The Social Learning Approach  Lev Vygotsky – Sociocultural theory of learning  Learning occurs as a result of an interaction between: A social milieu and an individual An expert and the learner (novice) in a learning community  Learning is: Not passive but dynamic Defined by the needs of the learner and community / context Achieved through assistance, assessment and feedback  Focus is on identifying the learners: Upper and lower limits of ability “zone of proximal development” refers to the learners optimal performance level  Through “scaffolding” Learners can perform at a level beyond what they would be capable of on their own Expert acts as a ‘bridge’ so learner can act as if they know how to complete the given task

Classical Learning Theories: The Social Learning Approach  Lave & Wenger – Situated Learning  “Situated Learning” refers to development of knowledge and expertise through the activity, context, and culture in which learning occurs  Learning is: Situated spatially and temporally A result of social interaction of learners in a “community of practice” – who have distinct manners of “knowing”, “believing” and “valuing”  Legitimate Peripheral Participation: Refers to the path of individuals as they move from an apprentice to an expert Process where novices move from the periphery of the “community of practice” to its center Novices become more engaged / participate in the culture of the “community of practice”, gradually learn its “ways of being” and become an expert

Classical Learning Theories: The Social Learning Approach  Criticisms of social learning approaches  Learning only occurs through community membership? what about formal (school) and non-formal learning (one- off workshops)?  Assumes that all new learners will be embraced by a community of practice what about office politics, fear of being replaced and losing one’s job?

Conclusions  Vast array of learning theories  We have moved from theories that view:  Brain as a container of knowledge  Knowledge as easily codified and transferred  Learning theories modeled on how machines operate  Towards theories that view:  Learning occurring due to experiences  Knowledge as acquired through relationships with others  Learning as more organic  Which one would you use to explain how you learn?  Are certain learning theories superior to others?