1. Operant Conditioning A learning process by which the likelihood of a particular behaviour occurring is determined by the consequences of that behaviour

2. Procedures used to Acquire an Operant Response 4 Skinner began experimenting with rats in the 1930’s. 4 He coined the term operant conditioning. 4 This was to give emphasis to the notion that animals and people learn to operate on the environment to produce desired consequences. 4 An operant is a response (or set of responses) that occurs in the absence of any stimulus and acts upon the environment in the same way each time.

3. Elements of Operant Conditioning 4 Reinforcement –Positive & Negative Reinforcement 4 Schedules of Reinforcement –Continuous Reinforcement –Partial Reinforcement –Fixed interval schedule –Fixed ratio schedule –Variable interval schedule –Variable ratio schedule

4. Reinforcement 4 Any stimulus (action or event) that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a response (behaviour) that it follows. 4 Positive Reinforcer –A reward which strengthens a response by providing a pleasant or satisfying consequence 4 Negative Reinforcer –The removal, reduction, or prevention of an unpleasant stimulus.

5. Schedules of Reinforcement –The frequency and manner in which a response is reinforced. 4 Continuous Reinforcement –When a correct response is reinforced every time it is given. 4 Partial Reinforcement –When only some correct responses are reinforced. –Responses conditioned under partial reinforcement are usually stronger (take longer to extinguish) than those under continuous reinforcement.

6. 4 Fixed Interval schedule –reinforcement is delivered after a fixed time period (eg. Every 10 seconds ) 4 Fixed Ratio schedule –reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of correct responses (eg. Every 10th response) 4 Variable Interval Schedule –reinforcement occurs on an average of a set time interval, but not with regular frequency. –Eg on an average of 10 seconds but with variations from 4 to 16 secs.

7. Variable Ratio Schedule 4 reinforcement occurs on the basis of a set average number of correct responses, but is not regular in its occurrence. –Eg on an average of every 10th response, but with variations from the 2nd to the 18th response.

8. Shaping 4 A procedure in which a reinforcer is given for any response that successively approximates and ultimately leads to the desired response or target behaviour. 4 Also known as the method of successive approximations.

9. Extinction & Spontaneous recovery in Operant Conditioning 4 Extinction –when the operantly conditioned response disappears over time as reinforcement ceases. 4 Spontaneous Recovery –the reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period.

10. Generalisation & Discrimination 4 Generalisation –in operant conditioning this usually refers to generalisation of the reinforcer 4 Discrimination –the organism learns to know which responses will be reinforced and which won’t.

11. Punishment 4 Distinction with negative reinforcement –Negative Reinforcement (like positive reinf.) increases the probability of a response occurring. –Punishment aims to decrease the probability of the response occurring.

12. Punishment vs Neg. Reinforcement 4 Although both negative reinforcement and punishment involve an unpleasant stimulus –a smack, a fine 4 Punishment occurs when this unpleasant stimulus follows a response –eg bad behaviour 4 Negative reinforcement occurs when the response avoids or stops an existing unpleasant stimulus.

13. Potential Punishers 4 Consequences: –which might lead to a decrease in a given response 4 It is important to know the subject being operantly conditioned to judge the type of consequences, which will be pleasant or unpleasant.

14. When praise is perceived as punishment A quiet student who is ‘fussed’ over by the teacher every time she offers a response in class, may shun such attention and see it as threatening (punishment) rather than rewarding (reinforcing) as the teacher had intended it.

15. Side effects of punishment 4 Frustration and aggression –develop in a child who is punished frequently 4 Administering punishment –can be an outlet of frustration for the punisher –Therefore - punishment may increase simply because it makes the punisher feel better - not because the person being punished deserved it.

16. Effective Punishment 4 Quick 4 Brief 4 Immediate 4 Limited in Intensity 4 Specific to a response –not the character of the person 4 Should consist of penalties –rather than physical or psychological pain

17. Applications of Operant Conditioning 4 Token Economy 4 Animal Training 4 Behaviour Modification

18. Token Economy 4 A situation in which individuals receive tokens for appropriate behaviour and these tokens can be collected and exchanged for tangible rewards. 4 Tokens may also be withdrawn and individuals can be fined for inappropriate behaviour.

19. Animal Training 4 Often involves the same sort of shaping procedures used by Skinner to get animals to perform tricks. 4 Also used to train dogs for – search and rescue operations –to detect drugs and bombs –to do guide work for the visually impaired

20. Behaviour modification 4 Makes extensive use of –positive reinforcement administered under various schedules –withdrawal of reinforcement in order to eliminate inappropriate behaviour or teach new responses.

21. Classical vs Operant Conditioning 4 The organism is passive when either the CS or UCS is presented 4 Only involuntary responses are involved 4 Response (eg salivation) depends on the reinforcement being presented (eg UCS / meat powder) 4 The organism must be active to receive the reinforcement or punishment 4 May involve both voluntary and involuntary responses. 4 Reinforcement (eg food pellets) depends on the response being made (eg lever press)

22. Classical vs Operant Conditioning 4 The reinforcer is the UCS and this precedes the response 4 A specific stimulus results in a particular response 4 One stimulus substitutes for another 4 The reinforcer follows the desired response 4 No specific stimulus produces a particular response 4 No substitution takes place

23. Classical vs Operant Conditioning 4 In humans, emotions such as fear which are associated with the autonomic nervous system are primarily involved. 4 One reinforcer can elicit only one type of response –eg. food leads only to salivation 4 Responses associated with goal-seeking behaviour are primarily involved. 4 One reinforcer can be used to strengthen a wide variety of responses –eg. Money for completing homework

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