Carbohydrates Carbohydrates Where are they found?

What are they used for?

What are they made of? carbohydrate = “hydrate of Carbon” Contains: general formula :

Monomer vs. Polymer MonomerPolymer

Types of Saccharides (sugar) simple sugars: Monosaccharides disaccharides complex: oligosaccharides polysaccharides

Monosaccharides Size Triose C3 sugars Tetrose C4 sugars Pentose C5 sugars Hexose C6 sugars Heptose C7 sugars “ose” - sugar What functional groups can you identify? What is the difference between the two five-carbon sugars? Where can they be found?

Saccharides Sugars are characterized based on: -Number of carbon atoms -Type of carbonyl group : aldose or ketose

Comparing Hexoses What are the molecules an example of? What are the structural differences? Where can you find each?

Anomeric Forms Anomer – a cyclic stereoisomer whose conformational difference involves the arrangement of atoms

3D Image of Glucose -Alpha = hydroxyl group on carbon 1 lies below the plane of the ring -Beta = hydroxyl group on carbon 1 lies above the plane of the ring

The Making and Breaking of Disaccharides Anabolic Reactions Catabolic Reactions What type of linkages are formed?

What is the difference between an alpha and a beta linkage?

Examples of Disaccharides SUCROSE LACTOSE MALTOSE

Oligosaccharides Short chains of sugars E.g. inulin and oligofructose

Polysaccharides A. Storage Polysaccharides i.Starch – Amylose – linear +Amylopectin - branched

ii. - found in animal cells - similar to amylopectin

B. Structural Polysaccharides chitin

Cellulose -Humans do not have enzymes to break the β 1-4 glycosidic linkage but can break the α 1-4 glycosidic linkage in starch

ISSUES SURROUNDING CARBOHYDRATES

Glucose Regulation Glucose blood levels are maintained by two hormones: _____ and __________ Hypoglycemia level below 60 mg/dl Symptoms of hypoglycemia include: hunger nervousness and shakiness perspiration dizziness or light-headedness sleepiness confusion difficulty speaking feeling anxious or weak

Hyperglycemia level is higher than 200 mg/dl hunger excessive thirst frequent urination Blurred vision Fatigue Weight loss Poor wound healing Dry mouth Dry or itchy skin Impotence in males Recurrent infections such as vaginal yeast infections, groin rash, or ear infections Can be caused by: a.Diabetes Mellitus b.Binge eating with bulimia OUR GOAL: MAINTAIN A CONSTANT BLOOD SUGAR LEVEL

Use and Effects of Fructose May be linked to:

Artificial Sweeteners vs. Sugar 200 times sweeter than sugar Not natural Proven to be unhealthy if has been stored in warehouses in high temperatures because it breaks down into methanol, a poison to vertebrates!

Lactose Intolerance

Galactosemia Inability to breakdown galactose

Problems with Low Carbohydrate Diets

Fiber is Important

High vs Low Fiber Foods High Whole grains Vegetables Legumes Lettuce Brocolli Low Bananas Tomatoes Squash Many cereals and white bread White pasta Potatoes rice