1. Carbohydrat Biochemistry AULANNI’AM BIOCHEMISTRY LABORATORY BRAWIJAYA UNIVERSITY

2. Carbohydrates Nature’s most abundant organic substance. Nature’s most abundant organic substance. Precursors for synthesis of all organic compounds in plants and animals Precursors for synthesis of all organic compounds in plants and animals Composed of C, H, and O atoms Composed of C, H, and O atoms Contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen in the ratio of 1:2:1 Contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen in the ratio of 1:2:1

3. Carbohydrates Monomers are called monosaccharides. Monomers are called monosaccharides. Carbohydrate polymers are known as polysaccharides. Carbohydrate polymers are known as polysaccharides.

4. Macromolecular Structure Monomer Monomer Single unit of a macromolecule Single unit of a macromolecule Can be linked together to form polymers Can be linked together to form polymers Monomer

6. CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES Monosaccharides Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides Polysaccharides

7. Carbohydrates (cont.) Carbohydrates (cont.) Monosaccharides Monosaccharides “Simple sugars” “Simple sugars” Monomer unit of carbohydrate group Monomer unit of carbohydrate group Examples: Glucose, fructose Examples: Glucose, fructose Disaccharides Disaccharides Composed of two monosaccharide units joined together Composed of two monosaccharide units joined together Examples: Sucrose, lactose Examples: Sucrose, lactose Polysaccharides Polysaccharides Composed of multiple monosaccharide units (100s – 1000s) Composed of multiple monosaccharide units (100s – 1000s) Examples: Starch, glycogen, cellulose Examples: Starch, glycogen, cellulose

8. MONOSACCHARIDES Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones which cannot be further hydrolysed to simpler sugars Polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones which cannot be further hydrolysed to simpler sugars Contain 3 to 10 carbon atoms, 2 or more hydroxyl(OH) groups and one aldehyde (CHO) or one ketone (CO) group Contain 3 to 10 carbon atoms, 2 or more hydroxyl(OH) groups and one aldehyde (CHO) or one ketone (CO) group

9. Monosacharides If n=3, triose (glyceraldehyde) If n=3, triose (glyceraldehyde) If n=5, pentose (fructose, ribose) If n=5, pentose (fructose, ribose) If n=6, hexose (glucose, galactose) If n=6, hexose (glucose, galactose) Used for Energy and Building Blocks Used for Energy and Building Blocks

10. Monosaccharides Are also known as simple sugars. Are also known as simple sugars. Glucose, for example, looks like this: Glucose, for example, looks like this:

11. Simple Sugars The most important simple sugars are glucose, galactose, and fructose. The most important simple sugars are glucose, galactose, and fructose.

12. Monosaccharides (simple sugars) all have the formula C6 H12 O6 all have the formula C6 H12 O6 all have a single ring structure all have a single ring structure (glucose is an example) (glucose is an example)

13. Simple sugars Generally made of carbon chains containing 4 (tetrose), 5 (pentose), and 6 (hexose) carbons. Generally made of carbon chains containing 4 (tetrose), 5 (pentose), and 6 (hexose) carbons. Can be drawn as a straight chain, cyclic compound, or a chair configuration. Can be drawn as a straight chain, cyclic compound, or a chair configuration.

14. Isomerism They can exist as isomers: They can exist as isomers:  &  glucose  &  glucose OH  

15. Disaccharides Two sugars bonded together with the removal of a water molecule. Two sugars bonded together with the removal of a water molecule. Other common double sugars are sucrose (glucose and fructose) and lactose (glucose and galactose).

16. Disaccharides (double sugars) all have the formula C12 H22 O11 all have the formula C12 H22 O11 sucrose (table sugar) is an example sucrose (table sugar) is an example

17. Disaccharides Formed from two monosaccharides Formed from two monosaccharides Joined by a glycosidic bond Joined by a glycosidic bond A condensation reaction: A condensation reaction: glucose + glucose  maltose glucose + glucose  maltose glucose + galactose  lactose glucose + galactose  lactose glucose + fructose  sucrose glucose + fructose  sucrose

18. Dehydration Synthesis Combining simple molecules to form a more complex one with the removal of water Combining simple molecules to form a more complex one with the removal of water ex. monosaccharide + monosaccharide ----> disaccharide + water ex. monosaccharide + monosaccharide ----> disaccharide + water (C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 ----> C12H22O11 + H2O (C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 ----> C12H22O11 + H2O Polysaccharides are formed from repeated dehydration syntheses of water Polysaccharides are formed from repeated dehydration syntheses of water They are the stored extra sugars known as starch They are the stored extra sugars known as starch

19. Hydrolysis Addition of WATER to a compound to SPLIT it into smaller subunits Addition of WATER to a compound to SPLIT it into smaller subunits (also called chemical digestion) (also called chemical digestion) ex. disaccharide + H2O ---> monosaccharide + monosaccharide ex. disaccharide + H2O ---> monosaccharide + monosaccharide C12 H22 O11 + H2 O ---> C6 H12 O6 + C6 H12 O6

21. OLIGOSACCHARIDES Sugars which yield 2 to 10 monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis Sugars which yield 2 to 10 monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis The monosaccharides are linked by glycosidic bonds The monosaccharides are linked by glycosidic bonds Eg: Maltose, Lactose and Sucrose Eg: Maltose, Lactose and Sucrose

23. POLYSACCHARIDES Non sugars giving more than 10 monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis Non sugars giving more than 10 monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis High molecular weight High molecular weight Form colloidal substances when heated with water Form colloidal substances when heated with water Several monosaccharide molecules combine to form polysaccharides by glycosidic linkages Several monosaccharide molecules combine to form polysaccharides by glycosidic linkages

25. CARBOHYDRATES - FUNCTIONS Structural component of cells Structural component of cells Major source of energy Major source of energy Regulation of fat metabolism Regulation of fat metabolism Osmotic and ionic regulation Osmotic and ionic regulation

26. Polysaccharides Formed of three or more simple sugar units Formed of three or more simple sugar units Glycogen - animal starch stored in liver & muscles Glycogen - animal starch stored in liver & muscles Cellulose - indigestible in humans - forms cell walls Cellulose - indigestible in humans - forms cell walls Starches - used as energy storage Starches - used as energy storage

27. Polysaccharides Made of many simple sugars linked in chains called polymers. Made of many simple sugars linked in chains called polymers. Examples of polymers are Examples of polymers are Starch – common food storage in plants and food for animals Starch – common food storage in plants and food for animals Glycogen – storage form of sugar in animals Glycogen – storage form of sugar in animals Cellulose – main structural carbohydrate in plants Cellulose – main structural carbohydrate in plants

28. Bioorganic Compounds Carbohydrates Carbohydrates Composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Large number of –OH groups attached to the carbons Large number of –OH groups attached to the carbons Functions Functions Energy source for living cells Energy source for living cells Certain structural components of cells Certain structural components of cells

29. Polysaccharides Polymers formed from many monosaccharides Polymers formed from many monosaccharides Three important examples: Three important examples: Starch Starch Starch Glycogen Glycogen Glycogen Cellulose Cellulose Cellulose

30. Polysaccharides Polymers of several monosaccharides Polymers of several monosaccharides Examples include: Examples include:  Starch: used by cells for energy (starch is like a battery).  Cellulose: used by plant cells for structure (cellulose is like microscopic chicken wire). Starch looks like this: Starch looks like this:

31. Dehydration Synthesis Dehydration (aka a condensation reaction) loses water from the polymer and links monomers together. Dehydration (aka a condensation reaction) loses water from the polymer and links monomers together. Energy is stored in the resulting bond. Energy is stored in the resulting bond.

32. Starch Amylose Amylose  -glucose 1,4 glycosidic bonds Spiral structure Amylopectin Amylopectin  -glucose 1,4 and some 1,6 glycosidic bonds Branched structure

33. Glycogen Insoluble compact store of glucose in animals Insoluble compact store of glucose in animals  -glucose units  -glucose units 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds Branched structure Branched structure

34. Cellulose Structural polysaccharide in plants Structural polysaccharide in plants  -glucose  -glucose 1,4 glycosidic bonds 1,4 glycosidic bonds H-bonds link adjacent chains H-bonds link adjacent chains O O O O O

35. FUNCTIONS OF POLYSACCHARIDES: a number of monosaccharides joined together eg. Starch, a polymer of glucose, with formula (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) n eg. Glycogen, same molecular formula--gives glucose when hydrolised, stored in liver and muscles as a reserve of carbohydrates. a number of monosaccharides joined together eg. Starch, a polymer of glucose, with formula (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) n eg. Glycogen, same molecular formula--gives glucose when hydrolised, stored in liver and muscles as a reserve of carbohydrates.

36. From monomers to polymers

37. Hydrolysis Hydrolysis adds water to the chemical bond linking macromolecules. Hydrolysis adds water to the chemical bond linking macromolecules. This results in the breakdown of the polymer and the release of energy. This results in the breakdown of the polymer and the release of energy.

38. Cellulose

39. Cellulose products

40. Secondary metabolites Produced in small amounts Produced in small amounts Can be very complex (chemically) Can be very complex (chemically)

41. Why do plants produce secondary metabolites? Attractants Attractants

42. Why do plants produce secondary metabolites? Deter predators Deter predators

43. Secondary metabolites as chemoprotectants Saponins and fungal resistance Saponins and fungal resistance Saponins and fungal resistance Saponins and fungal resistance avenicin avenicin

44. Cotton produces gossypol trichomes

45. Phytoecdysones promote molting

47. Thank you!