By Jamal Panhwar1 PERCEPTION 1

By Jamal Panhwar2 2 When you change the way you look at things, the things you look at change.

By Jamal Panhwar3 What is Perception? 3  A unique interpretation of a situation not an actual recording of it  A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.  People’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.

By Jamal Panhwar4 4 Perception WWhat is Perception? How we view and interpret the events and situations in the world about us. WWhy is it Important? Because people’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.

5 Factors that Influence Perception 5

By Jamal Panhwar6 PERCEPTUAL PROCESS 6 Organisation SelectionInterpretation Input Outputs

By Jamal Panhwar7 PRINCIPLES OF ORGANISATION  Figure and Ground  Principle of Similarity  Principle of Proximity  Principle of continuity  Principle of Closure  Principle of Symmetry 7

By Jamal Panhwar8 8 Figure and ground

By Jamal Panhwar9 9 Gestalt Approach Figure Ground

By Jamal Panhwar10 Similarity Proximity Continuity Closure Symmetry

By Jamal Panhwar11 The Vertical lines are both the same length. The center circles are both the same size. Mother and Child are of same height

By Jamal Panhwar12/2012

By Jamal Panhwar13 PERCEPTUAL AMBIGUITY 13

By Jamal Panhwar14 Word Color Test In this test DO NOT READ the words, say aloud the COLOR of each word. YELLOW BLUE ORANGE BLACK RED GREEN PURPLE YELLOW RED ORANGE GREEN BLACK BLUE RED PURPLE GREEN BLUE ORANGE

By Jamal Panhwar15 Wavy Squares? No! The background of concentric circles makes the squares appear distorted.

By Jamal Panhwar16 What is attribution theory?  Attribution theory aids in perceptual interpretation by focusing on how people attempt to: Understand the causes of a certain event. Assess responsibility for the outcomes of the event. Evaluate the personal qualities of the people involved in the event.

By Jamal Panhwar17 Attribution Theory: Judging Others  Our perception and judgment of others is significantly influenced by our assumptions of the other person’s internal state. When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused.  Internal causes are under that person’s control  External causes are not – person forced to act in that way  Causation judged through: Distinctiveness -Shows different behaviors in different situations. Consensus - Response is the same as others to same situation. Consistency - Responds in the same way over time. 17

By Jamal Panhwar18 Elements of Attribution Theory 18

By Jamal Panhwar19 Causes of Behavior  Internal factors – Personal characteristics that cause behavior (e.g., ability, effort)  External factors – Environmental characteristics that cause behavior (e.g., task difficulty, good/bad luck)

By Jamal Panhwar20 Kelley’s Attribution Model  Consensus – Involves the comparison of an individual’s behavior with that of his or her peers Individual Performance People ABCDE Individual Performance ABCDE LowHigh

By Jamal Panhwar21  Distinctiveness is determined by comparing a person’s behavior on one task with his or her behavior on other tasks. Kelley’s Theory of Attribution Tasks Individual Performance ABCDE Tasks Individual Performance ABCDE Low High

By Jamal Panhwar22  Consistency is determined by judging if the individual’s performance on a given task is consistent over time. Kelley’s Theory of Attribution Time Individual Performance Time Individual Performance LowHigh

By Jamal Panhwar23 How Kelley’s Model Works  External Attribution High consensus High distinctiveness Low consistency  Internal Attribution Low consensus Low distinctiveness High consistency

By Jamal Panhwar24 Test Your Knowledge  Nadia’s performance is declining. Her peers performance hasn’t changed, it is occurring on several tasks, and has occurred for the past six months.  This represents: 1.High (A) or Low (B) consensus 2.High (A) or Low (B) distinctiveness 3.High (A) or Low (B) consistency 4.The attribution her supervisor is likely to make is… a.Internal b.External

By Jamal Panhwar25 Errors and Biases in Attributions  Fundamental Attribution Error The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others We blame people first, not the situation  Self-Serving Bias The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors It is “our” success but “their” failure 25

By Jamal Panhwar26 Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others  Selective Perception - People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes  Halo Effect- Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic  Contrast Effects - Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics 26

By Jamal Panhwar27 Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others 27  Projection: The tendency to attribute one’s own characteristics to other people.  Stereotyping - Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs – a prevalent and often useful, if not always accurate, generalization

By Jamal Panhwar28 Specific Shortcut Applications in Organizations  Employment Interview Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of interviewers’ judgments of applicants Formed in a single glance – 1/10 of a second!  Performance Expectations Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities  Performance Evaluations Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental) perceptions of appraisers of another employee’s job performance Critical impact on employees 28