Terminologies for Research Methodology Business Research Methods

Terminologies Concept Construct Proposition Operational Definition Variable Law Hypothesis Model Research problem Theory Paradigm Framework

Concept A Concept is a generally accepted collection of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors Concepts are created by classifying and categorizing objects or events that have common characteristics beyond the single observation –Spreadsheet, warranty card We abstract such meanings from reality and used words as labels to designate them –We see a man passing (running, walking skipping, crawling or hopping) -- Cooper & Schindler, 8th Ed.

Concept A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that has been given a name Concept abstract reality Concepts are our building blocks -- Zikmund A (theoretical) concept must be tied to observable operations that any person can observe or perform. --McBurney

Sources of Concepts Concepts have been developed over time through shared usage –Different society may use many of the same concepts –Some concepts are unique to a particular culture Concepts can be borrowing from other fields –Strategic weapon, gravitation, distance, threshold, velocity Borrowing is not always practical, so we need to –Adopt new meanings for words –Develop new label for concepts

Concepts Abstract Level Empirical Level Observations of Objects and Events (Reality) Concepts Are Abstractions of Reality

Concept Expresses an abstraction formed by generalization from particulars Examples –Weight, mass, energy, force, achievement, intelligence aggressiveness, conformity, honesty –Weight expresses numerous observations of things that are more or less “heavy” or “light” --Kerlinger

Vegetation Fruit Banana Reality A Ladder of Abstraction for Concepts Increasingly more Abstract

Construct A construct is a concept Construct has the added meaning, however, of having been deliberately and consciously invented or adopted for a special scientific purpose An example (Intelligence) –Enter into theoretical schemes and is related in various ways to other constructs. –“Intelligence” is so defined and specified that it can be observed and measured -- Fred N. Kerlinger

Construct A construct is an image or idea specifically for a given research and/or theory-building purpose We build constructs, which are more complex, by combining the simpler concepts, especially when the idea or image we intend to convey is not directly subject to observation There is no sharp demarcation between concepts and constructs -- Cooper & Schindler

Syntax Vocabulary Spelling Manuscript errors Typing speed Format Accuracy “ Language Skill Construct ” “ Job Interest Construct ” (Components unknown by analyst) “ Presentation Quality Construct ” Most abstract Most concrete Level of abstraction Constructs Composed of Concepts in a Job Redesign Example

Proposition Statements concerned with the relationships among concepts The logical linkage among concepts Assert a universal connection between properties State that every event or thing of a certain sort either has a certain property or stands in a certain relationship to other events or things that have certain properties -- Zikmund

Proposition We define a proposition as a statement about concepts which may be judged as true or false if it refers to observable phenomena -- Cooper & Schindler

Theories Propositions Concepts Theory Building Is a Process of Increasing Abstraction Observations of Objects and Events (Reality) Level of Abstraction

Operational Definition A statement of the precise meaning of a procedure or concept within an experiment --McBurney Assign meaning to a construct or a variable by specifying the activities or “operations” necessary to measure –A constitutive definition defines a construct with other constructs -- Fred N. Kerlinger

Operational Definition An operational definition is one stated in terms of specific testing criteria or operations Whether the object to be defined is physical or highly abstract, the definition must specify the characteristics to study and how they are to be observed -- Cooper & Schindler

Operational Definition The specifications and procedures must be so clear that any competent person using them would classify the objects in the same way Operational definitions may vary depending on your purpose and the way you choose to measure them -- Cooper & Schindler

Variable A variable is some property of an event in the world that has been measured -- Donald H. McBurney A variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned A variable is a property that takes on different values -- Fred N. Kerlinger

Variable The term variable is used by scientists and researchers as a synonym for construct or the property being studied A variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned -- Cooper & Schindler

Types of Variables Independent and dependent variables Quantitative and categorical variables Continuous and discrete variables Physical and nonphysical variables --McBurney

Types of Variables Independent and dependent variables Active and attribute variables Continuous and categorical variables Latent variables --Kerlinger

Dependent and Independent Variables An independent variable is the presumed cause of the dependent variable, the presumed effect The independent is the antecedent; the dependent is the consequent The terms come from mathematics In experiments –The independent variable is the variable manipulated by the experimenter In nonexperiment –The independent variable is the variable that “logically” has some effect on a dependent variable Kerlinger

Active and Attribute Variables Manipulated variables will be called active variables; measured variables will be called attribute variables All variables that are human characteristics are attribute variables –Intelligence, aptitude, sex, socioeconomic status. Conservatism, field dependence, need achievement, and attitude The active-attribute distinction is general, flexible, and useful –The variable anxiety can be active or attribute Kerlinger

Continuous and Categorical Variables A continuous variable is capable of taking on an ordered set of values within a certain range Categorical variable belong to a kind of measurement called nominal –There two or more subsets of the set of objects being measured –Individuals are categorized by their possession of the characteristic that defines any subset -- Kerlinger

Latent Variable A latent variable is an unobserved “entity” presumed to underlie observed variables Intelligence is the best-known example –verbal, numerical and spatial tests are positively and substantially related, we believe that something is common to the three tests or observed variables and name this something “intelligence” Examples –Achievement, creativity, social class, anti- Semitism, conformity, and so on

Constructs and Observed Variable Constructs are nonobservables Variables, when operationally defined, are observables

Types of Variables independent and dependent variables Explanatory variables Extraneous variables Intervening variables -- Cooper &Schindler

Independent Variable Dependent Variable Defining Independent and Dependent Variables Presumed cause Stimulus Predicted from... Antecedent Manipulated Presumed effect Response Predicted to... Consequence Measured outcome

Moderating Variables Moderating variables –a second independent variable that is included because it is believed to have a significant contributory or contingent effect on the original state IV-DV relationship Example –The introduction of the four-day workweek (IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV)

Extraneous Variables An almost infinite number of extraneous variables exists that might conceivably affect a given relationship Example –In routine office work (control), the introduction of the four-day workweek (IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV)

Intervening Variables That factors which theoretically affects the observed phenomenon but cannot be seen, measured, or manipulated; its effect must be inferred from the effects of the independent and moderator variables on the observed phenomenon Examples –The introduction of a four-day workweek will lead to higher productivity by increasing job satisfaction (IVV) –A promotion campaign (IV) will increase saving activity (DV), especially when free prizes are offered (MV), but chiefly among smaller savers (control). The results come from enhancing the motivation to save(IVV)

Hypothesis A provisional assertion assumed to be true for the purpose of testing its validity -- Donald H. McBurney A conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables Two criteria for “good hypothesis” –Hypotheses are statements about relations between variables –Hypotheses carry clear implications for testing the stated relations --Kerlinger

Hypothesis We define a proposition as a statement about concepts which may judged as true or false if it refers to observable phenomena. When a proposition is formulated for empirical testing, we call it a hypothesis. -- Cooper & Schindler

Types of Hypothesis Descriptive hypotheses –These are positions that typically state the existence, size, form, or distribution of some variable Relational hypotheses –These are statements that describe a relationship between two variables with respect to some case

Descriptive Hypotheses These are propositions that typically state the existence, size, form, or distribution of some variable Example –The current unemployment rate in Detroit exceeds 6 percent of the labor force Researchers will often use a research question rather than a descriptive hypothesis –What is the unemployment rate in Detroit?

Relational Hypotheses These are statements that describe a relationship between two variables with respect to some case Example –Foreign cars are perceived by American consumers to be of better quality than domestic cars Correctional relationships –Young machinists are less productive than those who are 35 years or older Explanatory, or causal relationships –An increase in family income leads to an increase in the percentage of income saved

Hypotheses Are the Empirical Counterparts of Propositions Abstract Level Empirical Level Concept A (Reinforcement) Concept B (Habit) Dollar bonus for sales volume over quota Always makes four sales calls a day

The Role of Hypothesis It guides the direction of the study It limits what shall be studied and what shall not It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result Example –Husbands and wives(who should be studied) agree in their perceptions of their respective roles(what shall be studied) in purchasing decisions(what context shall be studied)

Theory A theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and prepositions that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena (facts) -- Cooper & Schindler A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose explaining and predicting the phenomena --Kerlinger

Theory A theory is a set of statements that organize a large body of facts (laws) into a single explanatory system, in a nutshell a theory is an explanation for a set of facts A theory is a statement or set of statements about the relationships among variables Sometimes a number of laws are tied together into a more general set of statements, which is called a theory --McBurney

Theory The role of theory –Organizing knowledge and explaining laws –Predicting new laws –Guiding research --McBurney The Goal of theory –Prediction –Understanding -- Zikmund

A Basic Theory Explaining Voluntary job turnover Labor Market Personality Perceived Ease of Movement Perceived Ease of Movement Perceived Desirability of Movement Perceived Desirability of Movement Pay Job Complexity Participation Intention to Quit Intention to Quit Voluntary Job Turnover Voluntary Job Turnover Job Performance Job Performance

Theory and Song A fact without a theory Is like a ship without a sail, Is like a boat without a rudder, Is like a kite without a tail. A fact without a figure Is a tragic final act, But one thing worse In this universe Is a theory without a fact

Paradigm A paradigm is a perspective way of thinking about a branch of science that includes all of assumptions and theories that are accepted as true by a group of scientists A new paradigm will be accepted when it accounts more successfully for empirical data than did the old paradigm --Kuhn

Theory and Paradigm Paradigm are general framework or viewpoints –Points from which to view –Provide ways of looking at life and are grounded in sets of assumptions about the nature of reality Theory is a systematic set of interrelated statements intended to explain some aspect of social life –Theories flesh out and specify paradigm –A theory aims at explaining what we see

Theory and Paradigm Examples Exchange paradigm –suggest that we analyze social situations in terms of perceived costs and benefits of various behavior Exchange theory –asserts, among other things, that “the more often a particular action of a person is rewarded, the more likely the person is to perform that actions examples –Macrotheory vs. microtheory –Conflict paradigm –Role theory –Feminist paradigms

Model A model is defined here as a representation of a system which is constructed for the purpose of studying some aspect of that system or the system as a whole Models differ from theories in that a theory‘s role is explanation whereas a model’s role is representation A model is not an explanation; it is only the result of taking the structure or function of one object or process and using that as a model for the second -- Cooper&Schindler

Law A law is a statement that certain events are regularly associated with each other in an orderly way Laws are probabilistic Laws do not have to state cause-effect relationships between events; any regular relationship is a law -- McBurney