© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Chapter 2 Sociological Investigation

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Science as one form of “Truth” Belief or faith Expert testimony Simple agreement Science – Logical system that bases knowledge on direct systematic observation – Resting on empirical evidence: information we can verify with our senses

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Concepts, Variables, and Measurement Concept: a mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form Variables: concepts whose values change from case to case Measurement: a procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case Operationalizing a variable: specifying what one intends to measure in assigning a value to a variable.

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Reliability and Validity Reliability – consistency in measurement – Does an instrument provide for a consistent measure of the subject matter? Validity – precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure – Does an instrument actually measure what it sets out to measure?

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Correlation and Cause Cause and effect – A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another Types of variables – Independent: the variable that causes the change – Dependent: the variable that changes (its value depends upon the independent variable) Correlation – A relationship in which two or more variables change together

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Figure 2-1

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. The Ideal of Objectivity A state of personal neutrality in conducting research Max Weber expected personal beliefs to play a part in selection of research topics or value-relevant But they should conduct research in a value-free way. Replication, repetition by other researchers, can help limit values of researchers.

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Limitations of Scientific Sociology 1. Human behaviour is too complex to predict precisely anyone’s actions. 2. The presence of a researcher can affect outcomes. 3. Social patterns change constantly. What is true in one time or place may not be true in another. 4. Being value-free is difficult.

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Two Other Frameworks for Sociological Investigation 1. Interpretive sociology – The study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world – Reality is not out there, it is constructed by people. 2. Critical sociology – The study of society that focuses on the need for change, and encourages activism.

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Gender and Research Five threats to gender research: Androcentricity and Gynocentricity: Approaching the topic from a male-only or female-only perspective Overgeneralizing: Using data collected from one sex and applying the findings to both sexes Gender blindness: The failure to consider the impact of gender at all Double standards: Using different standards to judge males and females Interference: a subject under study reacts to the sex of the researcher

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Research Ethics Must strive to be technically competent and fair-minded Must disclose findings in full without omitting significant data & be willing to share their data Must protect the safety, rights and privacy of subjects Must obtain informed consent--subjects are aware of of risks and responsibilities and agree Must disclose all sources of funding and avoid conflicts of interest Must demonstrate cultural sensitivity

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Research Methods Experiment: investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions, using an hypothesis, an unverified statement of a relationship between variables. Steps: 1. Measure dependent variable. 2. Expose dependent variable to independent. 3. Measure dependent variable to determine if predicted change occurred. (Cont’d)

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Research Methods (Cont’d) Survey: subjects respond to a series of statements in a questionnaire or interview. A survey targets a population, the focus of the research, and collects data from a sample, a part that represents the whole, by random sampling, where every person has an equal chance of being selected. They receive questionnaire, a series of written/read (interview) questions. (Cont’d)

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Research Methods (Cont’d) Participant observation: systematically observing people while joining in their routine activities. Most of this research is exploratory. It tends to be qualitative: impressionistic not numerical data, not quantitative: numerical data. The process, while inexpensive, usually requires much time. (Cont’d)

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Research Methods (Cont’d) Analysis of existing sources: Secondary Analysis: reanalyzing data collected by others, e.g., census data. Content Analysis: counting content of materials, e.g., letters and textbooks. Historical Research: e.g., development of Canadian economy.

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Table 2-4

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. Interplay of Theory and Method Researchers move back and forth between facts and theory: Inductive logical thought: transforming observations into general theory Deductive logical thought: transforming general theory into hypotheses for scientific testing.

© 2005 Pearson Education Canada Inc. 10 Steps in Sociological Research 1. Select and define topic 2. Review the literature 3. Develop key questions to ask 4. Assess requirements for study 5. Consider ethical issues 6. Select a research methodology 7. Collect the data 8. Interpret the findings 9. State conclusions 10. Publish the findings