© T. M. Whitmore TODAY Migration continued Mexico – US example Remittances Rural to rural migration  Rural to urban migration Social Geographies  Wealth & income  Social development indicators

© T. M. Whitmore Example of International migration: Mexicans to US Spatial patterns of migration Spatial Issue of remittancesremittances

© T. M. Whitmore

Remittances-a global phenomenaa global phenomena They are monies sent by workers in the more industrial countries to their homes in the global “south” ~ 150 million migrants sent  > US$ 300 billion globally in 2006

© T. M. Whitmore Remittances to LA About 30 million Latin American migrants living in the United States & Europe  Send ~ US$68 billion to their families annually! Send  Average remittance per migrant ~ US$2,100 Average per capita remittance ~ 20% of average per capita GDP 15 of 38 in LA countries receive > US$ 1 b

© T. M. Whitmore Remittance Origins in US Top US sending states = CA, NY, FL, IL, NJ (all over $1 billion annually) Top US sending states N C over $800 million annually N C Immigrants in US have total incomes ~ US$ 500 b  About 10% of that is sent home but 90% is spent in the US locality ~ 60 of remittance senders are “working poor” or lower middle class (incomes < $30k) – but most think economic life in US is good

© T. M. Whitmore How is money sent? Most send to their families through international money transfer companies. international money transfer companies  These are costly: fees can run to 6-7% or more (but these are low by global standards) Fewer than 50% of Latin Americans have bank accounts here or in home countries  Thus some use professional viajeros (travelers) Agencies are now competing  IADB working to reduce fees and bottlenecks  In Durham, NC the Latino Community Credit Union charges from $6-10

© T. M. Whitmore Remittance destinations in LA Countries where remittances ~ 10% of total country GDP Countries where remittances ~ 10% of total country GDP  Grenada ~31%  Honduras ~25%  El Salvador ~24%  Haiti ~21%  Dominican Republic ~18%  Jamaica ~18%  Nicaragua ~15%  Belize ~11%  Guatemala ~10%

© T. M. Whitmore Remittances to LA & C Exceed the combined flows of all Foreign Direct Investment and net Official Development Assistance Flows substantially exceed tourism income to each country & almost always exceed the largest export Overall remittances ~13% of the value of all exports Large percentages (> 15%) of the adult population in many countries receive remittances Large percentages

© T. M. Whitmore Scale of remittance flows Remittances to Mexico ~US$24 billion  Greater than the country's total tourism income  Greater than 2/3 of the value of petroleum exports  About equal to 180% of the country's agricultural exports.

© T. M. Whitmore Spending Remittances Vast majority spent on household expenses Vast  Rural residents get ~ 1/3 of all remittances  Investments in real estate (houses) increasinghouses  Also investments in small business venturessmall business

© T. M. Whitmore Consequences & Issues Social consequences to the Latin American migrant workers’ families Social consequences  About 1/3 are undocumented thus  Visits home are few  Wages and working conditions may be poor  Families are divided Impacts in Latin America  Is this development or dependency?  How many participate, does it increase or decrease equity?

Global Totals: ~$US 301 billion

Source: © IADB Remittances: The Human Face of Globalization

Quiroga, Mexico © Thomas Whitmore

Source: © IADB $1.2 b $13.2 b $5.2 b $3.7 b 2006 estimates-note big increases

© Thomas Whitmore

Source: © IADB

© Thomas Whitmore

Return migrant (remittance funded) housing in Ecuador © Brad Jokish

© Thomas Whitmore

© T. M. Whitmore Migration: rural => rural From densely settled highlands to sparsely settled lowlands  Andean to Amazonia Andean  Andean to coast  Central American Central From densely settled NE Brazil and S cities to Amazonia From Also temporary r -> r circulation Myriad of interacting factors “driving” migrationfactors

Amazonia

© David Carr

Sugar mill in S coastal Guatemala

© T. M. Whitmore 4th type: rural => urban migration What is it?  Rural to urban migration => permanent change of residence Why migrate?  “Push” and “Pull” forces  Economic welfare Economic  Social welfare Social  Other factors Other

© T. M. Whitmore Economic pushes & pulls Lack of land Few non-farm opportunities Little upward mobility Development => fewer rural jobs & jobs with less dignity New jobs have less autonomy Strategy of family income diversification

© T. M. Whitmore Social (pushes & pulls) Education Health care access

© T. M. Whitmore Other (pushes & pulls) Environmental Violence Individual factors

© T. M. Whitmore Who migrates? Age Gender Marital status Education level Personal Ethnicity

© T. M. Whitmore How do migrants move? Migration patterns  Role of information  Role of social networks  Role of “steps”  Role of distance and costs

© T. M. Whitmore Social Geography & Development: Wealth Average wealth in GDP (in PPP)/capita World ~ $9,940  Lesser developed ~ $4,760-5,480 USA ~ $44,260

© T. M. Whitmore Social Geography & Development: Wealth II LA ~ $8,630 Extremes of GDP/capita in LA (< $5,000) Extremes  Low  Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala  Jamaica, Haiti (<$1,500!)  Ecuador, Bolivia, Paraguay  > LA average GDP/capita (> $8,500)  Costa Rica, Mexico  Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay

© T. M. Whitmore Percent population living on <$2/day World average > 50% Latin American average ~ 24%  Countries with > 30%  Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala, El Salvador,  Jamaica, Haiti,  Bolivia, Ecuador, Paraguay  Countries with fewer than LA average  Costa Rica, Mexico  Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay Chile

GDP/capita

© T. M. Whitmore Wealth distribution I USA  Richest 20% have 40% of all income  Poorest 20% have 5%  65% in middle class GINI coefficients GINI  USA ~ 41  Mexico ~46  Bolivia ~60  Brazil ~56  Guatemala ~60

© T. M. Whitmore Wealth distribution II Latin America  Richest 20% have 50-65% of all income  Poorest 20% have 2-5%  30% in the middle  Countries with top 20% with more than 50% of all income  Brazil, Panama, Costa Rica, Argentina, Mexico, Peru, Venezuela Changing over time Changing Varies within countries Varies

GINI coefficients

© T. M. Whitmore Social development indicators The Human Development Index Safe water access Population to hospital bed ratio % of children < age 5 underweight Overall worst levels of human development  Bolivia; Ecuador; Paraguay; Peru  El Salvador; Guatemala; Honduras; Nicaragua  Dominican Republic; Haiti