Standard III

 Argument is a reason to persuade or support a viewpoint.  We use argument to determine what is best for us in certain situations. As students, we use argument in debates, research papers, and speech assignments. As adults, we use argument to make valid points in meetings, and discussions.

 It is important for us – to understand what comprises a good argument and how to argue successfully. To recognize the strength of other people’s arguments so that we can determine if we agree or disagree.

 Viewpoint is an opinion about a subject. We form those opinions by reasoning; we use our beliefs and interpret evidence and facts to draw logical conclusions. A viewpoint should be supported by valid reasons that can lead others to a convincing conclusion. Forming conclusions requires the use of deductive or inductive reasoning.

 Deductive reasoning applies a general truth to draw a conclusion about something specific. This type of reasoning is always logically valid because it relies on established truths and laws.

 Example of Deductive Reasoning: In biology, it is an accepted truth that birds are the only animals that have feathers (all feathered animals are considered birds). A researcher in the Amazon jungle discovers a new species. That species has feathers. The researcher concludes that the new species is a type of bird.  Researcher uses the general truth that all feathered animals are birds to conclude that this new species that has feathers must be a bird. As long as the general truth holds true, the conclusion will be valid.

 Inductive Reasoning use specific observations to draw a more general conclusion. This type of reasoning may be true but is not always valid because it always relies on one or more assumptions. We use inductive reasoning to piece together what we know to draw a conclusion about something else. The strength of an argument based on inductive reasoning depends on how strong the evidence is.

 Example of Inductive Reasoning – While at college, Carl becomes friends with four people who are from Italy. Each of those friends loves spaghetti. Carl draws the conclusion that all people from Italy love spaghetti.  Carl uses specific observations to make a general conclusion. There are over 57 million Italians. Just because four of them love spaghetti is not very strong evidence that ALL Italians love spaghetti. People of many different cultures enjoy spaghetti.

 Jessica saw her best friend Ashley at the mall. Ashley was walking beside a boy that Jessica had never seen. Jessica knows that Ashley’ cousin from Detroit is supposed to be visiting her this week. Jessica concludes that the boy walking beside Jessica is her cousin from Detroit. Jessica is making an assumption based on what she knows. Her conclusion may be correct, but its is also possible she is wrong. The evidence is strong that her conclusion is correct.

 Viewpoint should be supported by valid reasons that can lead others to draw the same conclusions. Taking a rigid viewpoint that includes terms like always, all, everyone or never, none, on one is hard to defend. Beware of viewpoints from people who use rigid terms. Ex. 1Students always ignore teacher’s directions. Ex. 2Some students frequently ignore teachers’ directions

 Ex. 1Students always ignore teacher’s directions. Allows for no exceptions Difficult to prove Would be some exceptions to statement Not logical (Only one exception can be proven so statement is false.)  Ex. 2Some students frequently ignore teachers’ directions More flexible words Easier to defend Using some keeps statement from being illogical

 To argue a viewpoint, it must be supported by valid reasons, evidence, or facts. Don’t believe everything you hear or read. Ex. 1: In health class, the teacher ask students for reasons that people should not smoke. A fellow student raises her hand and says, “Smoking causes lung cancer.  You may believe this statement, but you need reasons to support this claim.

Ex. 2Smoking causes lung cancer. The surgeon general requires warning messages about lung cancer on packages of cigarettes. Since the surgeon general knows the latest research on lung cancer, I believe smoking causes lung cancer.  Claim is back up with two true facts – surgeon general requires warning message and should know the latest research on lung cancer. This viewpoint is based on facts and logical reasoning.

 The more types of evidence used, the stronger the argument becomes, and the stronger evidence is, the stronger the argument. Kinds of support that may be helpful in argument are – Personal testimony Statistics Observation expert testimony Demonstration Citing of both positive and negative aspects of an issue

“ Toyotas are economical and dependable cars.”  Personal testimony: Since I’ve owned a car made by Toyota, I know they are very dependable cars.  Statistics: Ninety-nine percent of all Toyota products will last longer and perform better if they receive regular service maintenance.  Observation: As a certified mechanic, I have observed first hand that Toyota cars require less maintenance than many other cars.

“ Toyotas are economical and dependable cars.”  Expert testimony: Service Manager Greg Foster says, “Toyotas that receive regularly scheduled maintenance sometimes last for more than 300,00 miles.  Demonstration: Toyota offers classes to dealership personnel to demonstrate the quality workmanship of the cars.  Positive & Negative Aspects: Toyotas are both economical and dependable, and their only drawback is that the genuine Toyota oil filters recommended by the dealers are only sold at the dealership.

1. Which of the following ideas from the editorial is an example of faulty logic? A. To let people know what is for sale, sellers have to advertise. B. Without amusing commercials on TV, television stations would go bankrupt. C. You cannot take a company to court for selling something a buyer doesn’t need. D. Manufacturers often contribute to pollution and hasten the depletion of our raw materials. Answer:B

2. Read the following statement from the editorial. Search as you may, you will never find in American court records a single case of an innocent citizen being forced by advertisers or advertising into buying something he or she didn’t want. Which phrase is used by the author to avoid a serious flaw in logic? A. “Search as you may” B. “an innocent citizen” C. “into buying something” D. “in American court records” Answer:D

3. Which technique does the author use to strengthen his argument about advertising? A. Using personal testimonies B. Giving statistics to show effectiveness C. Addressing both positive and negative aspects D. Describing advertisements that were successful. Answer:C

4. What is the most convincing reason Rooney gives for not going through the red light? A. It is against the law. B. We just don’t go through red lights. C. It is part of a contract we have with each other. D. We stop in this situation because it makes us feel proud. Answer:C

5. Which idea from the article is not supported by evidence? A. Air-borne nitrogen is likely to disrupt other plant communities. B. Wedin and Tilman studied the effects of applied nitrogen for more than ten years. C. Air-borne nitrogen pollution from cars and power plants was approximated in a study. D. Changes in the amount of nitrogen in the soil change the amount of nitrogen in water supplies. Answer:A

6. If Leann wants to make the point that mail delivery was often difficult, which fact would be BEST to include in her research paper? A. In 1896, Rural Free Delivery of mail began. B. In 1963, Zip Code numbers were put into use. C. In 1799, Congress passed a death penalty for robbing the mail. D. In 1941, a post office on wheels, called Highway Post Office (HYPO), was initiated. Answer:C

7. How does the author support the statement that the Pensacola area is “one of the most beautiful and well-preserved natural environment in the country”? A. by listing recreational activities. B. by naming state recreation areas. C. By describing the scenery and wildlife. D. By outlining the geographic boundaries. Answer:C