KEY KNOWLEDGEKEY SKILLS  The principles and processes of learning as applied to the cognitive, associative and autonomous stages, including the role feedback plays in assisting learning  The open and closed skill continuum as applied to sports  The effect of environmental stability vs. instability.  Various practice modes and the transfer of practice.  Application of learning principles to everyday sports and physical activity  Understand factors that influence coaching and learning at the cognitive, associative and autonomous stages of learning © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Skill = the ability to do a task well and some definitions include: an activity requiring voluntary movements to achieve a goal a quality movement that produces success Motor skills are often categorised under: Movement precision - gross or fine Type of movement – discrete, serial or continuous Predictability of movement - open or closed © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Stages of Learning (Fitts & Posner) Cognitive (beginner) Associative (intermediate) Autonomous (advanced) © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Cognitive (beginner) stage an idea of what is required is obtained focus is on producing movement routines errors are made but performer doesn’t know how to correct them rate of improvement is rapid blocked practice leads to best improvements practice should be kept as ‘closed’ as possible Associative (intermediate) stage movement patterns begin being fine tuned and refined performance becomes more consistent and errors occur less frequently concentration on movement routines lessens and more external stimuli can be considered performers begin to develop some problem solving strategies of their own rate of improvement slows as does rate of errors Autonomous (advanced) stage movements become ‘automatic’ and typically seen in elite performers attentional focus shifts to external factors such as opponent moves players develop anticipation skills errors are quickly self-corrected © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Information processing considerations Reaction time is the delay between the stimulus and the initiation of movement. Movement time is the time it takes for a movement to be completed from the time it starts and total response time is a combination of these two. Simple reaction time involves one stimulus and only one response Choice reaction time involves more than one stimulus and possibly more than one response. As the amount of options increase, so too does reaction time The greater the stimulus response compatibility, the quicker the reaction time © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Anticipation – is being able to predict what is going to happen next. It is the ability to ‘read the play’ or pick up on environmental cues and best prepare an appropriate response. Practice allows performers to recognise cues or certain patterns / stimuli that enable them to predict what will happen next. Anticipation reduces reaction times in most cases At a more advanced level, ‘fake’ cues can be given to get an opponent to react to these. Very quickly as they begin to respond to this “fake” another movement is made and this had a delayed response time. This is known as the psychological refractory period. Timing is critical in the psychological refractory period in terms of presenting two different cues. © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Learning styles = (VAK) Visual learners prefer: to see or visualise instructions demonstrations, diagrams, pictures and other visual material being shown what to do and how to do it Auditory learners prefer: hearing instructions being told what to do receiving verbal feedback about their performance Kinaesthetic learners prefer: doing a task and “feeling” what it’s like learning by doing © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Practice needs to be individualised Examples of practice methods include: blocked vs. random practice whole vs. part practice massed vs. distributed practice Blocked practice : involves practicing the same skill repeatedly without changing to another task. e.g. 50 shots at goal often used with beginners needing to understand basic movement principles best used in closed environments Random practice: uses varied sequencing of motor skills in the same session e.g. dribbling 5m passing to a team mate and then doing a lay up best used at associative or autonomous stages © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Part practice: involves breaking a skill down into its various segments and then mastering this useful when skills involve multiple segments / parts allows beginners to experience success before attempting other parts of the skill Whole practice: used at associative and autonomous stages when basic parts of skill have been mastered important when segments need to be performed in rapid sequence (ballistic tasks) © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Massed practice: involves long training sessions that occur less frequently more prone to fatigue and off task behaviour if concentration drops used by most non-professional performers (including students) because of other demands Distributed practice: involves frequent and short training sessions has breaks during each session typically used where high intensity training is involved requiring recovery / breaks has greater opportunity for feedback and movement refinement © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Feedback = information received about the performance of a task © Cengage Learning Australia 2011

Internal feedback occurs when the performer’s own senses = visual, auditory, proprioception and touch are used. External feedback can support a performer’s own internal feedback = Knowledge of results specific feedback about the outcome of a task useful for beginners used less as performance improves and internal feedback refines Knowledge of performance focuses on characteristics of performance not just outcome usually offered at completion of task External feedback has three main aims: fix errors motivate continued improvement reinforce correct processes © Cengage Learning Australia 2011