Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chapter 6 Learning This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images Any rental, lease or lending of the program. ISBN:

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Learning Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes Habituation – Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Behavioral learning – Forms of learning that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses (e.g. classical and operant conditioning) Learning Mere exposure effect – Learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response What Sort of Learning Does Classical Conditioning Explain?

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Neutral stimulus – Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning Acquisition – Initial learning stage in classical conditioning; conditioned response becomes elicited by the conditioned stimulus

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Classical Conditioning Prior to conditioning Conditioning After conditioning Neutral stimulus (tone) (Orientation to sound but no response) Unconditioned stimulus (food powder in mouth) Unconditioned response (salivation) Neutral stimulus CS (tone) Unconditioned stimulus (food powder) + Conditioned response (salivation) Conditioned stimulus (tone) Conditioned response (salivation)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Classical Conditioning Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer Spontaneous recovery – Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery (1) Acquisition (CS + UCS) (3) Spontaneous Recovery (CS alone) Rest period (2) Extinction (CS alone) (Time) Trials Strength of the CR (Weak) (Strong)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Classical Conditioning: Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus generalization involves giving a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the CS Stimulus discrimination involves responding to one stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar Confusing stimuli may cause experimental neurosis

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Applications of Classical Conditioning Taste-aversion learning – Biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 A Challenge to Pavlov Why are some stimuli-consequence combinations readily learned while other combinations are highly resistant to learning? What any organism can or cannot learn in a given setting is due in part to its evolutionary history

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior, such as rewards and punishments, influence the chance that our behavior will occur again

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? Trial-and-error learning – Learner gradually discovers the correct response by attempting many behaviors and noting which ones produce the desired consequences

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism B.F. Skinner believed that the most powerful influences on behavior are its consequences

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Power of Reinforcement Positive reinforcers – Stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again Negative reinforcers – Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Power of Reinforcement Primary reinforcers – Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Power of Reinforcement Secondary reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers (also called conditioned reinforcers)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Contingencies of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced Partial reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced (also called intermittent reinforcement)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How does this differ from extinction in classical conditioning? Contingencies of Reinforcement Extinction – In operant conditioning, a process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses e.g. factory workers getting paid after every 10 cases of product are completed

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial e.g. slot machine pay- offs

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses e.g. weekly or monthly paychecks

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial e.g. random visits from the boss who delivers praise

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Problem of Punishment Punishment – An aversive stimulus which diminishes the strength of the response it follows How does this differ from negative reinforcement?

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement Loud NoisePress Lever Loud Noise Removed Loud Noise Applied Response Consequence Negative Reinforcement Punishment No Noise

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Problem of Punishment Positive punishment – The application of an aversive stimulus after a response Omission training (negative punishment) – The removal of an appetitive stimulus after a response

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Four Kinds of Consequences Positive or appetitive Negative or aversive STIMULUS - Remove Negative Reinforcement Aspirin curing headache causes more aspirin use Omission Training Missing dinner leads to less staying out late + Present Positive Reinforcement Bonus for working hard leads to more hard work Punishment Getting speeding ticket leads to less speeding

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Use and Abuse of Punishment Power usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed Punishment Often triggers aggression May inhibit learning new and better responses Is often applied unequally When does punishment work?

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Alternatives to Punishment Extinction Reinforcing preferred activities Premack principle Prompting and shaping

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared Classical conditioning involves the association of two stimuli (UCS + CS) before the response or behavior Operant conditioning involves a reinforcing (reward) or punishing stimulus after a response or behavior

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? Insight learning – Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions Cognitive maps – A mental representation of physical space

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism Observational learning – Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Brain Mechanisms and Learning Long-term potentiation – Biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells; believed to be the neural basis of learning

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 End of Chapter 6