Life Span Development Chapter 10

Methods in Developmental Psychology

Cross-Sectional Study Study people of different ages at the same point in time Advantages Inexpensive Can be completed quickly Low attrition Disadvantages Different age groups are not necessarily much alike Differences may be due to cohort differences rather than age

Longitudinal Study Study the same group of people over time Advantages Detailed information about subjects Developmental changes can be studied in detail Eliminates cohort differences Disadvantages Expensive and time consuming Potential for high attrition Differences over time may be due to assessment tools and not age

Biographical or Retrospective Study Participant’s past is reconstructed through interviews and other research about their life Advantages Great detail about life of individual In-depth study of one person Disadvantages Recall of individual may not be accurate Can be expensive and time consuming

Prenatal Development Period of time from conception to birth Embryo From about two weeks after conception to three months after conception Fetus Three months after conception to birth Placenta Connects fetus to mother Brings oxygen and nutrients Takes away wastes

Prenatal Development Critical Period Terotogens Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Time when influences have major effect Terotogens Substances that can damage an embryo or fetus Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Occurs in children of women who consume large amounts of alcohol during pregnancy Symptoms include facial deformities, heart defects, stunted growth, and cognitive impairments

The Newborn Baby

Reflexes Rooting Sucking Swallowing Grasping Stepping Baby turns its head toward something that brushes its cheek and gropes around with mouth Sucking Newborn’s tendency to suck on objects placed in the mouth Swallowing Enables newborn babies to swallow liquids without choking Grasping Close fist around anything placed in their hand Stepping Stepping motions made by an infant when held upright

Temperament Easy Difficult Slow-to-warm-up Temperament refers to characteristic patterns of emotional reactions and emotional self-regulation Thomas and Chess identified three basic types of babies Easy Good-natured, easy to care for, adaptable Difficult Moody and intense, react to new situations and people negatively and strongly Slow-to-warm-up Inactive and slow to respond to new things, and when they do react, it is mild

Kagan has added a fourth type Temperament Kagan has added a fourth type Shy Child Timid and inhibited, fearful of anything new or strange Temperament may predict later disposition

Perceptual Abilities Vision Depth Perception Other Senses Clear for 8-10 inches Good vision by 6 months Depth Perception Visual cliff research Other Senses Ears are functional prior to birth Infants particularly tune in to human voices Taste and smell are fully functional

Infancy and Childhood

Physical Development Children grow about 10 inches and gain about 15 pounds in first year Growth occurs in spurts, as much as 1 inch overnight Growth slows during second year

Motor Development Developmental Norms Maturation Ages by which an average child achieves various developmental milestones Maturation Automatic biological unfolding of development in an organism as a function of passage of time

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Sensory-Motor Stage (birth to 2 years) Object permanence Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) Egocentric Concrete Operations (7-11 years) Principles of conservation Formal Operations (11-15 years) Understand abstract ideas

Criticisms of Piaget's Theory Many question assumption that there are distinct stages in cognitive development Criticism of notion that infants do not understand world Piaget may have underestimated influence of social interaction in cognitive development

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Preconventional (preadolescence) “Good” behavior is mostly to avoid punishment or seek reward Conventional (adolescence) Behavior is about pleasing others and, in later adolescence, becoming a good citizen Postconventional Emphasis is on abstract principles such as justice, equality, and liberty

Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory Research shows that many people never progress past the conventional level Theory does not take cultural differences into account Theory is considered by some to be sexist in that girls often scored lower on tests of morality

Language Development Babbling Holophrases Make the sounds of all languages Holophrases One word is used to mean a whole sentence

Theories of Language Development Skinner theorized that language develops as parents reward children for language usage Chomsky proposed the language acquisition device A neural mechanism for acquiring language presumed to be “wired into” all humans Bilingualism and the development of a second language

Parent-Child Relationships in Infancy Social Development Parent-Child Relationships in Infancy

Development of Attachment Imprinting Tendency to follow the first moving thing seen Occurs in many species of animals Attachment Humans form a bond with those who care for them in infancy Based upon interaction with caregiver Autonomy Sense of independence Socialization Process by which children learn appropriate attitudes and behaviors

Parent-Child Relationships in Childhood Social Development Parent-Child Relationships in Childhood

Baumrind’s Parenting Styles Authoritarian Tightly control children’s behavior and insist on obedience Can produce children who have poor communication skills, who are moody, withdrawn, and distrustful Permissive-indifferent Parents have too little control and often are indifferent and neglectful Children tend to become overly dependent and lack social skills and self-control

Baumrind’s Parenting Styles Permissive-Indulgent Parents are very attentive and supportive, but do not set limits on behavior Children tend to be immature, disrespectful, impulsive, and out of control Authoritative Parents provide firm structure, but are not overly controlling Parents listen to their children’s opinions and explain their decisions, bur are still clearly in charge Children tend to become self-reliant and socially responsible

Relationships With Other Children Solitary play Children first play by themselves Parallel play As they get older, children play side-by-side with other children, but not interacting Cooperative play By about 3 or 3½, children begin playing with others

Relationships With Other Children Peer group A network of same-aged friends and acquaintances who give one another emotional and social support When children start school, peers begin to have greater influence Nonshared environment Unique aspects of the environment that are experienced differently by siblings

Sex-Role Development Gender identity Gender constancy Knowledge of being a boy or girl Occurs by age 3 Gender constancy Child realizes that gender cannot change Occurs by age 4 or 5

Sex-Role Development Gender-role awareness Gender stereotypes Knowing appropriate behavior for each gender Gender stereotypes Beliefs about presumed characteristics of each gender Sex-typed behavior Socially defined ways to behave different for boys and girls May be at least partly biological in origin

Adolescence

Physical Changes Growth spurt Sexual development Begins about age 10½ in girls and about 12½ in boys Sexual development Puberty Onset of sexual maturation Menarche First menstrual period for girls

Physical Changes Early and late developers Adolescent sexual activity Approximately ¾ of males and ½ of females between 15 and 19 have had intercourse Average age for first intercourse is 16 for boys and 17 for girls Teenage pregnancy Rate of teen pregnancy has fallen in the last 50 years Highest in U.S. of all industrialized nations

Cognitive Changes Imaginary audience Personal fable Invulnerability Adolescent delusion that everyone else is always focused on them Personal fable Delusion that they are unique and very important Invulnerability Nothing can harm them

Personality and Social Development Major occurrence in adolescence is identity formation Forming an identity Achievement Successfully find identity Foreclosure Settle for identity others wish for them Moratorium Explore various identities Diffusion Unable to “find themselves”

Personality and Social Development Relationships with peers Adolescents often form cliques, or groups with similar interests and strong mutual attachment Relationships with parents Adolescents test and question every rule and guideline from parents

Some Problems of Adolescence Declines in self-esteem Related to appearance Satisfaction in appearance is related to higher self-esteem Depression and suicide Rate of suicide among adolescents has increased 600% since 1950, but has leveled off in ’90s Suicide often related to depression, drug abuse, and disruptive behaviors

Adulthood

Love, Partnerships, and Parenting Forming partnerships First major event of adulthood is forming and maintaining close relationships Parenthood Having children alters dynamics of relationships Marital satisfaction often declines after birth of child

Marital Satisfaction

Other Issues The World of Work Cognitive Changes Personality Changes Balancing career and family obligations is a challenge Cognitive Changes Thinking is more flexible and practical Personality Changes Less self-centered, better coping skills Some men and women have a midlife crisis (or midlife transition) The "Change of Life" Menopause

Late Adulthood

Physical Changes In late adulthood, physical deterioration is inevitable A person’s response to these changes are important

Independent and satisfying lifestyles Retirement Social Development Independent and satisfying lifestyles Retirement Most people will stop working and face challenges with that sudden change Sexual behavior Research shows that many older couples continue to be sexually active

Cognitive Changes Research has demonstrated that those who continue to “exercise” their mental abilities can delay mental decline Alzheimer’s disease afflicts approximately 10% of people over 65 and perhaps as many as 50% of those over 85

Facing the End-of-Life Kubler-Ross’s Stages of Dying Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance