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A modern science Objective and systematic study of human behaviour and society is a relatively new development that began end of 18th century and early 1900s. Sociology appeared in Western societies where change was greatest as a result of two main developments which are French revolution (1789) and Industrial Revolution. These changes helped humanbeing to use scientific analysis instead of religion or common sensual knowledge.

Early Theories Positivism and Auguste Comte Functionalism and Emile Durkheim Conflict Theory and Karl Marx Symbolic Interaction and Max Weber

Positivism The positivist approach assumes that the behaviour of humanbeings, like behaviour of things can be measured objectively like in physical sciences. In other way observation of behaviour is based on objective measurement. Knowledge about society is based on observation, comparison and experimentation.

Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Comte invented the word of sociology. For him sociology is the last and the most complex discipline which could be used as a means to contribute to the welfare of society. All scientific disiplines share a common logic and methods to reach a set of universal laws. Science should be absolutely value-free, totaly objective. Society operates according to certain laws, just as the physical world operates. By understanding the causal relationship between events, scientists can predict how future events will occur.

The Development of Scientific Approach by A. Comte Theological Stage: Human society is guided by religion. Society is expression of God’s will. Methaphysical stage: World that is guided by power of ideas since Renaissance (not God’s will). Scientific Stage: Studying on physical world. Comte’s contribution here was to apply the scientific approach that are used in physical sciences also in studying the human society.

Functionalism This approach states that various parts of society form a complete system. To understand any part of society, such as the family, religion, the part must be seen in relation to other parts and to the maintenance of social structure. The main parts of society, its institutions such as the family, the economy, the education, and political system are major aspect of the social structure. Functionalism assumes that a certain degree of order is essential for the survival of society. It gives importance to moral consensus of society where members of society share the same values.

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) Durkheim believed that a society can be observed by sociologist with the same objectivity as natural scientists. Sociology must focus on social facts, aspects of social life like religion, state and economy. Social facts can be investigated as things like any object or event in nature. ’Social facts have their own reality outside the lives and perceptions of individual people and have coercive power over individuals. Durkheim believed that social facts are crucial for understanding society. Social facts point to social or group level explanation of behavior, such as nationality, gender, and marital status. Drastic social change created ‘anomie’ which is aimlessness of social life. Durkheim stated that division of labour provides social change in a positive way and shared values and customs hold society together with a solidarity. Social solidarity occurs when individuals are integrated into social groups. Industrial era made emerge a new type of solidarity. Durkheim divides social solidarity into two: Mechanical solidarity: seen in pre industrials societies and appears low division of labour, traditional, common experiences. Organic solidarity: specialisation of tasks, economic interdependence, recognition of others’ contribution, mutual dependency.

Robert K. Merton A contemporary Functionalist (1910-2003) As a modern follower of functionalism, Merton distinguishes the manifest and latent functions. Manifest function is known and intended in a social activity. Latent function is unknown results of any social action which participants are not aware. Dysfuntional social action refers to challenging aspect of social phenomena.

Karl Marx (1818-1883) Marx is a well known representative and inspirational source of the conflict theory. It is not ideas or values which social change is stemmed but formed primarily by economic influences. These are linked to the conflicts between classes that provide the motive power of historical development. Capitalism is the most important change in modern times. It contrasts the production system in history. Goods and services that are produced are sold to wide range at consumers.

Capitalism and Class Struggle The most important development in modern time for Marx was development of capitalism which is completely different from previous economic systems. Capitalism has two items: capital and wage labour. Capital is any asset including money, machines and factories. Capital goes hand in hand with labour force people who do not have their own livelihood. Wage Labour have to find a job to survive provided by the owners of capital. Society is divided into two main classes which are those who own capital (capitalists, bourgeusie) and those who work for them working class (working class, proleteriat). First group has means of production like factories, machines and capital. Second group has to find a job to survive provided by the owners of capital. Capitalism is a class system where the relationship between classes are unbalanced and exploitative.

Materialist Conception of History by Karl Marx Social changes are based on and stemmed from economic reasons. Conflict between classes is motor of history. Social systems make a transition from one made of production to another as a result of contradiction in their economies. Basic historical stages for Marx are primitive communist societies (hunters and gatherers), ancient slave system, feudal system (division between landowners and serfs) and capitalists (merchants and crafts people) overthrow the feudal order. Workers’ revolution will bring socialist society in which classes do not exist and economic system is under communal control.

Conflict Approach This theory rejects the idea that society is a structure which aims to develop within a harmony and with peaceful functions of all organs in it. Division, power, inequality and struggle should be studied. This theory was developed as critical answer to functionalism. According to this theory, sociology has to look at how factors such as colour of skin, ethnic origin, gender are related with inequalities in the society. Society is a complex which contains inequality, conflict, power, struggle and change. Sociologists are using the social-conflict paradigm to look at ongoing conflict between dominant and disadvantaged categories of people: the rich in relation to the poor, white people in relaiton to the people of color, men in relation to women. Typically, people on the top strive to protect their priviledges, while the disadvantaged try to gain more for themselves.

Max Weber (1864-1920) Weber studied economics, law, philosophy, history and also sociology. By comparing Chinese, Indian and Western religious and belief systems he concluded that certain aspects of Christian beliefs become effective on the rise of capitalism. Societies differ primarily in the way that their members think about the world. Ideas, especially beliefs values have transforming powers Economic factors are important as Marx mentioned but ideas and values have just as much impact on social change. The West has pure scientific character. In Weber’s view, cultural ideas and values help shape society and shape our individual actions. ‘Ideal types, pure form of social phenomena, as reference points to understand the world, for different groups and diffrent time. Development of bureaucracy is inevitable part of our time and it involves experts. Capitalism is not dominated by the class conflict but by the rise of science and bureaucracy which is called ‘rationalisation’.

Symbolic Interactionism focuses on small-scale patterns of social interaction in specific setting. sees society as product of the everyday interactions of individuals. Humanbeings live in world of symbols. We attach meaning and significance to most of what we do. Reality is how people define their surroundings, identities. Human motivation causes social change. Sociology should focus on social action not structure.

Comparison Macro and Micro Theories Macro sociology offers a general explanation of society as a whole and studies larger groups, institutitions and social systems. Macro analysis is essential to understand the institutional background of daily basis is greatly affected by the broader institutional framework. The study of face to face interaction is usually called microsociology which is a close-up focus on social interaction in specific situation. In fact, micro and macrosociologies are closely related and each complements the other. Micro and Macro analysis are both used for full creation of a situation. Despite impersonel communicative tools, we today have a face-to-face contact with the people who we do not know. Face to face interaction on the other hand is the main basis of broader institutions.

Theoretical Paradigm Image of Society Core Question Functionalism (Macro level) A system of interrelated parts that is relatively stable because of widespread agreement on what is morally desirable; each part has particular function in society as a whole. Societies are made up of specialized structures (the family, religion, economy, politics, education etc) and that each of these structures performs a vital function in maintaining the whole. Under normal conditions, they work together to promote harmony and stability. How is society integrated? What are the major parts of society? How are these parts interrelated? What are the consequences of each part for overall operation of society? Social Conflict (Macro level) A system based on social inequality; each part of society benefits some categories of people more than others; social inequality leads to conflict which in turn, leads to social change. Structure of society is the result of competition for scarce resources. In order to understand society it must be determined who benefits from that pattern and how such persons maintain their positions of power. How is society divided? What are the major patterns of social inequality? How do some categories of people try to protect their privileges? How do other categories of people challenge the status quo? Social Action (Micro level) An ongoing process of social interaction in specific settings based on symbolic communication; individual perceptions of reality are variable and changing. Everyday interaction is determined by the way people interpret events and relationships. How is society experienced? How do human beings interact to create, maintain and change social patterns? How do individuals try to shape the reality that others perceive? How does individual behavior change from one situation to another?