H IGH P ERFORMING T EAMS Teamwork Innovation in teams Diversity and teams Leadership in teams

E VIDENCE B ASED M ANAGEMENT P FEFFER AND S UTTON (2006) “If doctors practiced medicine like many companies practice management, there would be more unnecessarily sick or dead patients and many more doctors in jail or suffering other penalties for malpractice” Assume evidence based management will lead to a significant competitive advantage

E VIDENCE B ASED M ANAGEMENT Basis for most management Personal experience Obsolete knowledge Recommendations from others/specialists Fads/gurus Dogmas/beliefs Mindless copying of top performers

T EAM C HARACTERISTICS S ALAS ET AL., 2009 Two or more individuals Interact socially and adaptively Shared or common goals Meaningful task interdependence Hierarchical structure Distributed expertise and roles Embedded in an organization or environment

T EAMWORK D EFINITION S ALAS ET AL., 2009 Teamwork is a set of flexible behaviors, cognitions, and attitudes that interact to achieve desired mutual goals and adaptation to the changing internal and external environments…consists of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are displayed in support of one’s teammates, objectives and mission.

T YPES OF T EAMS Advice Production Project/development Action/negotiation

TEAMS Presumed benefits of self-directed teams Increase motivation Accountability Shared rewards Social reinforcement Empowerment/efficacy Voice Autonomy Responsibility Commitment Utilization of skills Diversity/complementarity Cross-functional teams Flexibility

W HY T EAMS D ON ’ T W ORK Social loafing/free riding Problems of group decision-making Satisficing Polarization Going with first good idea Groupthink Production blocking

THE ROMANCE OF TEAMS A LLEN & H ECHT (2004) Mismatch between modest evidence for team effectiveness and enthusiasm for teams 30/55% of organizations use teams Social value of teams Together Everyone Achieves More

THE ROMANCE OF TEAMS IMPLICATIONS Organizational practice may not be justified Overapplication to inappropriate contexts Lack of organizational alignment with teams Support systems Resources Training Lack of cost/benefit analysis Force fitting individuals into teams Not all individuals suited for teams Yet these individuals may be valuable for organizations

WHY TEAMS DON’T WORK Hackman (1998) Some teams successful Others not Largely due to manager/corporate mistakes

WHY TEAMS DON’T WORK: M ANAGER M ISTAKES Use teams for individual tasks Manage teams as individuals Need to be a real team Failure of managers to give direction Teams can supply the means Failure to provide appropriate organizational/normative structure Failure to provide organizational support Assume team members have needed skills

WHEN TEAMS WORK Appropriate team task Real team Clear, engaging direction Facilitative structure Supportive organizational practices Expert coaching

C HARACTERISTICS OF E FFECTIVE T EAMS (S ALAS ) Have clear roles & responsibilities Driven by compelling purpose – goal, vision Guided by team coach ( leader ) – promotes, develops, reinforces Have mutual trust – familiarity Develop team norms – clear, known & appropriate

C HARACTERISTICS OF E FFECTIVE T EAMS (S ALAS ) Hold shared understanding of task, mission & goals – hold shared mental models They self-correct – huddles, debriefs Set expectations – clear, understood Share unique information – efficient information protocols Surrounded by optimal organizational conditions – policies, procedures, signals

C ORE C OMPONENTS OF T EAMWORK Team Leadership Adaptability Mutual performance monitoring Backup behavior Team orientation

C ORE C OORDINATING M ECHANISMS Shared mental models Closed-loop communication Mutual trust Make core components possible

T EAM KSA S S ALAS ET AL. (2009) Attitudes Team/collective orientation Team/collective efficacy Psychological safety Team learning orientation Team cohesion Mutual trust Team empowerment Team reward attitude Team goal commitment/conscientiousness

T EAM KSA S S ALAS ET AL. (2009) Behaviors Mutual performance monitoring Adaptability Backup/supportive behavior Implicit coordination strategies Shared/distributive leadership Mission analysis Problem detection Conflict resolution and management

T EAM KSA S S ALAS ET AL. (2009) Behaviors Motivation of others Intrateam feedback Task related assertiveness Planning Coordination Team leadership Problem solving Closed-loop communication/information exchange

T EAM KSA S S ALAS ET AL. (2009) Cognitions Rules for matching a situation with an appropriate action Accurate problem models Accurate shared mental models Team mission, objectives, norms, resources Understanding multi-team system couplings

E XPERT T EAMS S ALAS ET AL. (2006) Hold Shared Mental Models Members anticipate each other Can communicate without overt means Interpret environmental cues in a complementary or consistent way Can reach intuitive consensus on problem definition, action, selection Concise communication/standardized terminology

E XPERT T EAMS S ALAS ET AL. (2006) Optimize resources by learning and adapting Self-correcting Compensate for each other Deliberate process of maintaining and building expertise Adjust performance processes to changes in task/environment Seek feedback within/outside team Discuss errors

E XPERT T EAMS S ALAS ET AL. (2006) Clear Roles and Responsibilities Manage expectations Understand each others’s roles and fit Clear but not rigid team member roles

E XPERT T EAMS S ALAS ET AL. (2006) Clear, Valued and Shared Vision A clear and common purpose Guided by common values

E XPERT T EAMS S ALAS ET AL. (2006) Pre-Brief, Performance, Debrief Cycle Regular individual and team feedback Establish and revise team goals and plans Differentiate between low and high priorities Mechanisms for anticipating and reviewing issues or problems of members Periodically diagnose team effectiveness Generate lessons from performance episodes Discuss performance strategies

E XPERT T EAMS S ALAS ET AL. (2006) Strong Team Leadership Good leadership skills; not just technical Team members believe leader cares about them Leaders provide situation updates Leaders foster teamwork, coordination, cooperation Leaders who self-correct first Leaders provide guidance for improvement Leaders set team and individual priorities Share leadership functions as needed

E XPERT T EAMS S ALAS ET AL. (2006) Strong Sense of Collective, Trust, Teamness, Confidence Manage conflict well Strong sense of team orientation Trust other team member intentions Believe in collective ability to succeed Develop collective efficacy Learning and development atmosphere Safety for interpersonal risks

E XPERT T EAMS S ALAS ET AL. (2006) Manage and Optimize Team Performance Outcomes Make fewer errors Communicate often enough Make better decisions Greater chance of mission success Adjust team processes to optimize performance

E XPERT T EAMS S ALAS ET AL. (2006) Cooperate and Coordinate Identify teamwork and task work requirements Right mix of competencies Integrate new team members Distribute work thoughtfully Workplace adjusted for optimal communication and coordination Manage team interdependence in a timely manner Ensure team members have information needed Effectively manage conflict

T EAM T RAINING K OZLOWSKI & I LGEN (2006) Team Training appears to be effective Individual team skills Teams skills Cross-training Guided team-self-correction training Adaptation-coordination training Team building/results mixed

E VIDENCE FOR T RAINING E FFECTIVENESS Compared with current training, enhanced training resulted in (see Cannon-Bowers & Salas, 1998): 45% Improvement in Mission Performance 33% Improvement in Tactical Decision Making Performance 25% Improvement in Communication Efficiency 10-34% Improvement in Team Coordination In the aviation environment (Salas et al., 1999) 6-20% Improvement in Teamwork Behaviors

T EAM T RAINING W ORKS W HEN … Focused on teamwork knowledge, skills, and attitudes (KSAs) necessary for effective team functioning Provides opportunities to practice these KSAs Trainers give feedback to diagnose teams regarding their ability to use the KSAs Tools are provided to improve transfer of team training Debriefs Coaching

T EAM T RAINING G REGORY ET AL. (2013) Prepare Climate Involve trainees in decision Provide organizational support Emphasize the value for the organization

T EAM T RAINING Create Conditions for Teamwork Make sure that training will transfer Deal with job relevant processes Make team training scenario realistic Pilot testing

T EAM T RAINING Conduct teams needs analysis Organizational analysis Facilitative and inhibitory factors Team task analysis What are the team tasks? Person analysis Who needs the training and what are their characteristics

T EAM T RAINING Design a measurement plan Include appropriate content Teaching taskwork before teamwork Cooperation Conflict Coordination Communication Coaching/leadership Cognition/shared understanding

T EAM T RAINING Instructional strategy Provide information Demonstration Practice—role play, simulation Coordination training Cross training Self-correction training

T EAM T RAINING Team development Feedback and debriefings Evaluate team training Promote transfer of training Sustain conditions that foster teamwork

T EAM E FFECTIVENESS -R EFLEXIVITY A PPROACH (W EST, 2004) Task reflexivity Focus on objectives Regular review and adjustment of team processes Social reflexivity Support, conflict resolution, social climate

T EAM E FFECTIVENESS -R EFLEXIVITY A PPROACH (W EST, 2004) Disfunctional team Low social and task reflexivity Poor task performance Poor mental health Low team viability

T EAM E FFECTIVENESS -R EFLEXIVITY A PPROACH (W EST, 2004) Cold efficiency team Low social and high task reflexivity High task effectiveness Average or poor mental health Short term viability

T EAM E FFECTIVENESS -R EFLEXIVITY A PPROACH (W EST, 2004) Cosey team High social and low task reflexivity Poor task effectiveness Average mental health Short term viability

T EAM E FFECTIVENESS -R EFLEXIVITY A PPROACH (W EST, 2004) Fully functioning team High social and high task reflexivity High task effectiveness Good mental health Long-term viability

T EAM D ECISION M AKING Effective meetings Clear agenda Chance for all to share Efficient process for decision making Maintain a positive atmosphere

D ECISION M AKING B ARRIERS Common information bias Conformity Polarization Personality differences (introversion) Differences in contribution levels Differences in communication skills Degree of openness to contrary opinions Status hierarchy effects

D ECISION M AKING B ARRIERS Groupthink Social loafing Diffusion of responsibility Production blocking

T OWARD B ETTER D ECISION M AKING Stepladder technique (Rogelberg et al.,1992) First all share ideas Then build on ideas and come to collective decision Psychological safety Effective meeting structure Controlled sharing, summarizing, breaks, focus on sub-topics

T OWARD B ETTER D ECISION M AKING Constructive controversy (Tjosvold) Exploration of opposing opinions Open minded consideration and understanding Integration of ideas Concern with high quality solutions Tolerance of diversity Cooperative team climate Shared team goals

T OWARD B ETTER D ECISION M AKING Effective presentation of minority perspectives Clear presentation of views Compelling presentation Persistence Delayed changes in related domains Stimulates creativity

V IRTUAL T EAMS Geographically distributed Rely on communication technology Most findings similar for face to face and virtual teams Importance of trust, cohesion, communication, leadership

V IRTUAL T EAMS Advantages Ease of tapping diverse skills independent of location International teams

V IRTUAL T EAMS Disadvantages Accountability Cohesion/connectedness Lack of casual/informal contacts Proximity important in science teams May have more conflict

V IRTUAL T EAMS Challenges (Webster & Staples, 2006) More complex than f-t-f Restricted communication Invisibility May increase misunderstandings and wrong conclusions

V IRTUAL T EAMS Critical factors for success Shared understanding Trust Communication

V IRTUAL T EAMS Best practices Not a lot of good research (Webster & Staples, 2008) Good for exchange of information, not for more complex tasks such as decision- making Periodic face-to-face meetings Begin with ftf to build cohesion, trust, transactive memory Then virtual, with periodic ftf to maintain cohesion and for complex tasks Use rich media, mixed with lean

V IRTUAL T EAMS Key factors in success Effective use of information technology Periodic face-to-face meetings IT resources and training Virtual team training (Nemiro et al., 2008) Effective supervision—transformational or process facilitators

B UILDING E FFECTIVE T EAMS Intrinsically interesting tasks Individuals should feel an important part of team Contributions are indispensable, unique and evaluated against a standard Clear goals and built-in performance feedback

E NHANCING T EAMWORK Z AJAC AND S ALAS (2013) Overcome barriers to intra- and inter-team coordination Manage team composition Organizational support, realistic goals, fair evaluations Virtual teams are may require special accomodation