Origins of United Nations War, Peace and the United Nations Origins of United Nations

Pair-Share What do you know about the United Nations? If you don’t know much about the United Nations, what do you think it is based upon the name itself?

1941: Atlantic Charter The Atlantic Charter outlined a vision of the postwar world that would set up an international organization serving as the arbiter of disputes All of the principles outlined were strongly supported by FDR, whereas Churchill & Stalin were only committed to some of those principles by the last year of the war It was only after four more years of fighting World War Two and the great devastation of the war that Churchill and Stalin came around to Roosevelt’s position.

Allied wartime diplomacy illustrated that the Big Three could not settle their basic disagreements

The Four Policemen World peace was to be maintained by what Roosevelt described as the “four policemen”-the US, UK, USSR and China, acting together to prevent conflict These four policemen, along with France, became the five permanent members of the UN Security Council The USSR initially opposed China’s inclusion as one of the “policemen”, but Roosevelt insisted. Churchill was not happy about it either.

Three of the “Policemen” at Yalta in 1945

Steps Leading Up To Decision To Create UN The leaders of the Allies met during the spring and summer of 1945 to discuss what should happen to the world once World War Two ended. Many issues were addressed regarding how to end the war with Japan, rebuilding the war-torn countries, and what could be done to prevent World War Three. This is where the United Nations came in.

1945: Yalta Conference The Big Three agreed on Soviet entrance into the Pacific war after Germany had been defeated U.S. wanted to have the Soviet Union participate in the projected invasion of Japan because it could reduce the number of American casualties Creation of a United Nations to preserve world peace after the end of the war Division of Germany into four zones of occupation based on the positions of troops at the end of the war

The United Nations was created at the end of the Second World War, replacing the League of Nations US President Franklin D Roosevelt was a driving force behind the creation of the United Nations The name “United Nations” was used by Roosevelt to describe the alliance fighting the Axis powers in World War Two.

- President Harry S. Truman 1945 “The (UN) charter points down the only road to enduring peace. There is no other.” - President Harry S. Truman 1945

Pair-Share Why do you think it took the devastation of World War Two for universal support of a peace-keeping body?

Creation of the United Nations In April 1945, delegates from fifty countries met in San Francisco full of optimism and hope. The goal of the United Nations Conference on International Organization was to fashion an international body to promote peace and prevent future wars. The ideals of the organization were stated in the preamble to its proposed charter: “We the peoples of the United Nations are determined to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind.”

The Birth of the United Nations 26 June 1945, representatives of 50 countries sign the charter of the United Nations at a conference in San Francisco UN officially comes into existence on 24 October 1945 - now celebrated as United Nations Day

1945: The United Nations The United Nations Charter states the goals and purposes of the organization: To maintain international peace and security Develop friendly relations among nations To be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in attaining these common ends

Eleanor Roosevelt FDR’s wife Founding member of UN One of the first U.S. ambassadors to the UN Pair-Share: What do you think the message of is for this political cartoon? Why?

Pair-Share The next few slides have primary source quotes from Eleanor Roosevelt about the role of the United Nations. What is the theme that is repeated in the quotes? Why do you think that is? Do you agree or disagree with the idea?

“ Security requires both control of the use of force and the elimination of want.” -Eleanor Roosevelt

“No people are secure unless they have the things needed not only to preserve existence, but to make life worth living …” -Eleanor Roosevelt

All peoples of the world must know there is an organization where their interests can be considered and where justice and security will be sought for all.” - Eleanor Roosevelt

Development of the Concept of Human Rights

Pair-Share Before we examine the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, what rights do you think should be included in the document and why?

Human Rights Documentary: 9 minutes and 30 seconds http://www.humanrights.com/what-are-human-rights.html

Definition of Human Rights HUMAN RIGHTS are the rights that all people have by virtue of being human beings. HUMAN RIGHTS are derived from the inherent dignity of the human person and are defined internationally, nationally and locally by various law making bodies.

The Preamble to the Charter WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,

Brief History of Development of Human Rights Enlightenment English Petition of Right (1628) English Bill of Rights (1689) U.S. Declaration of Independence (1776) United States Constitution and Bill of Rights (1789) French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789)

The Petition of Right The Petition of Right, produced in 1628 by the English Parliament and sent to Charles I as a statement of civil liberties. Refusal by Parliament to finance the king’s unpopular foreign policy had caused the king to exact forced loans and to quarter troops in subjects’ houses as an economy measure. Opposition to these measures resulted in arbitrary arrest and imprisonment The Petition of Right was Parliament's way to demand changes from the king

4 Principles of Petition of Right 1) No taxes may be levied without consent of Parliament. 2) No subject may be imprisoned without cause shown (habeus corpus) 3) No soldiers may be quartered upon the citizenry. 4) Martial law may not be used in time of peace.

English Bill of Rights After supporters of Parliament won the English Civil War (caused partially by the king's refusal to sign the Petition of Right), Charles II was forced to sign the English Bill of Rights Statement of certain positive rights that citizens and/or residents of a constitutional monarchy should have.

English Bill of Rights Asserts subjects’ rights to petition the Monarch and to bear arms for defence Parliament must meet regularlly The king cannot do certain things without the consent of the governed (using democratic institutions)

Declaration of Independence On July 4, 1776, the American Continential Congress approved the Declaration of Independence. Its primary author, Thomas Jefferson, wrote the Declaration as a formal explanation of why the Colonists declared independence from Great Britain Philosophically, the Declaration stressed two themes: Individual rights (life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness) Right of revolution when these rights are volated by a government These ideas became widely held by Americans and spread internationally as well - influencing revolutions ever since (particularly the French Revolution)

Constitution and Bill of Rights Written during the summer of 1787 in Philadelphia, the Constitution of the United States of America is the fundamental law of the US federal system of government and the landmark document of the Western world. It is the oldest written national constitution in use and defines the structure of government and the basic rights of citizens. The first ten amendments to the Constitution are known as the Bill of Rights The Bill of Rights protects freedom of speech, freedom of religion, the right to keep and bear arms, the freedom of assembly and the freedom to petition. It also prohibits unreasonable search and seizure, cruel and unusual punishment and compelled self-incrimination. Prohibits Congress from making any law respecting establishment of religion and prohibits the federal government from depriving any person of life, liberty or property without due process of law. In federal criminal cases it guarantees a speedy public trial with an impartial jury and prohibits double jeopardy.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen In 1789 the people of France brought about the abolishment of the absolute monarchy and set the stage for the establishment of the first French Republic. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (French: La Déclaration des Droits de l’Homme et du Citoyen) was adopted by the National Constituent Assembly as the first step toward writing a constitution for the Republic of France.

Pair-Share Activity In the next slide, there are a few primary source quotes from the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. How do they reflect the ideas of the Enlightenment? How are they similar to American documents? Which ones?

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen The Declaration proclaims that all citizens are to be guaranteed the rights of “liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.” It argues that the need for law derives from the fact that “...the exercise of the natural rights of each man has only those borders which assure other members of the society the enjoyment of these same rights.” Thus, the Declaration sees law as an “expression of the general will,“ intended to promote this equality of rights and to forbid “only actions harmful to the society.”

Brief History of Development of Human Rights Early Developments (cont.) International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent (1863) Geneva Convention (1864) Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907) League of Nations (1919) International Labor Organization (1919)

International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Formed in 1863 to treat and care for those injured in armed conflict Expanded to include disaster relief and large-scale emergencies Currently exists in 188 different countries

Geneva Conventions In 1864, sixteen European countries and several American states attended a conference in Geneva, Switzerland The diplomatic conference was held for the purpose of adopting a convention for the treatment of wounded soldiers in combat. The main principles laid down at this and future Conventions: obligation to extend care without discrimination to wounded and sick military personnel rules on treatment and keeping of prisoners of war (POWs) respect for and marking of medical personnel transports and equipment with the distinctive sign of the red cross on a white background

Hague Conventions An attempt to create an international court to settle disputes and avoid war Attempted to create acceptable "Rules of War" to deal with the new more deadly weapons that were being developed Created new rules for maritime conflict as well This was the first modern effort to create a binding agreement to try and avoid the potential massive loss of life that was seen in the US Civil War

International Labor Organization Part of the Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I Based on the idea that a lasting peace must be based on social justice Hardships created by poor working conditions and low wages lead to unrest among working classes Helped to create international agreements to improve the lives of workers around the world

League of Nations Also part of the Treaty of Versailles Key part of the Treaty proposed by US President Woodrow Wilson Its Covenant, or Charter, included: preventing wars through collective security disarmament settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration

League of Nations Formed in 1920 58 Nations joined the League - theUnited States never did! The League became a place where nations could bring grievences and discuss them in open The League did not have its own armed forces and relyed on member nations to enforce its resolutions After some early success, the League proved to be ineffective as nations fell back into the practrice of placing their own interests first The failure of the League of Nations influenced the structure and power of the United Nations

Brief History on Development of Human Rights Aftermath of World War II The Nuremberg Trials (1945-1946) Tokyo Tribunals (1946-1948)

Nuremberg Trials Defendants Judges

Nuremberg Trials The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military tribunals (3 judges) meant to prosecute leading Nazis for “Crimes Against Humanity” 24 members of the surviving leadership of the Nazi party were charged (Adolph Hitler and Josef Goebbels had committed suicide) Some of the most notorious: Herman Goring Rudolf Hess Ernst Kaltenbrunner Wilhelm Keitel Alfred Jodl

Nuremberg Trials Prosecutors had to follow strict laws of evidence and defendants had legal teams to assist them 12 sentenced to death by hanging 3 life in prison 4 prison for 10-20 years 3 acquitted 2 never faced trial (1 committed suicide after his trial began; 1 was old and very ill so deemed unfit for trial)

Tokyo Tribunals Defendants Judges

Tokyo Tribunals Just as with Nuremberg, those responsible for Japanese atrocities stood trial for “murdering, maiming, and ill-treating prisoners of war and civilians forced labor under “inhumane conditions” “plundering public and private property” perpetrating “mass murder, rape…torture and other barbaric cruelties…” 27 high ranking military and government officers were convicted and sentenced to prison or death

Tokyo Tribunals High Ranking Convictions Hideki Tojo Prime Minister Chief of Imperial Japanese Army Akira Muto Imperial Japanese Army Nanjing Massacre Seishiro Itagaki Imperial Japanese Army Manchuria & Korea

Purpose of the War Trials Besides punishing those responsible for the atrocities of World War II, the purpose was to place the “Rule of Law” above all “Rule of Law” means that all people and institutions are subject to and accountable to law that is fairly applied and enforced This principle is the legal basis for Human Rights laws and declarations

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Universal Declaration of Human Rights The UN Charter empowered ECOSOC to establish “commissions in economic and social fields and for the promotion of human rights….” Under the chairmanship of Eleanor Roosevelt, United Nations Human Rights Commission created the Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Declaration was drafted by representatives of all regions of the world and encompassed all legal traditions

Universal Declaration of Human Rights Formally adopted by the United Nations on December 10, 1948 Most comprehensive universal human rights document in existence Delineates 30 fundamental rights that form the basis for a democratic society The Declaration is a living document that has been accepted as a contract between a government and its people throughout the world. According to the Guinness Book of World Records, it is the most translated document in the world.

Pair-Share In the next few slides, there are primary source quotes from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. What is the purpose or role of the document? How does this document reflect the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment?

Modern Protection of International Human Rights The Preamble to the United Nations Charter states that the “Peoples of the United Nations” are determined “to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small.”

Universal Declaration of Human Rights In its preamble and in Article 1, the Declaration unequivocally proclaims the inherent rights of all human beings: “Disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people...All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.”

Modern Protection of International Human Rights In 1966, the General Assembly adopted: The Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (and its First Optional Protocol) The Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights which, together with the UDHR, are now known as the International Bill of Human Rights

Modern Protection of International Human Rights In addition to the International Bill of Human Rights, the United Nations has drafted and promulgated over 80 human rights instruments: genocide racial discrimination discrimination against women refugee protection torture the rights of disabled persons the rights of the child

Human Rights Violations While some gains have been made over the course of the six decades since the Declaration of Human Rights, violations still plague the world today People are tortured or abused in at least 81 countries Face unfair trials in at least 54 countries Restricted in their freedom of expression in at least 77 countries Women and children in particular are marginalized in numerous ways The press is not free in many countries Dissenters are silenced, too often permanently The UN, its agencies, and other organizations continue the right for Human Rights

Structure and Organization of United Nations

The structure of the UN Security Council: responsible for peace, has 15 members General Assembly: main deliberative forum of the UN has 191 members The UN Secretariat headed by the Secretary General UN Economic and Social Council International Court of Justice based in The Hague, Holland

UN Human Rights Bodies Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice International Court of Justice International Criminal Court Commission on the Status of Women World Health Organization International Atomic Energy Agency International Labour Organization

UN Human Rights Bodies Treaty Monitoring Bodies Human Rights Committee Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women Committee Against Torture Committee on the Rights of the Child Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

Select your top three and explain your reasoning. Pair-Share Which of the different bodies of the United Nations do you think are the most important and why? Select your top three and explain your reasoning.

UN Security Council

UN Security Council The Security Council has five permanent members: United States United Kingdom France Russia China. 10 other countries elected for two year terms Not all members are equal: permanent members have the power of veto Charter gives the Security Council “primary responsibility for international peace and security”

Five Permanent Members of the Security Council These are the “Winners” of World War II United States Soviet Union Great Britain France China

What power does the 5 permanent members of the Security Council have that the other Security Council members do not have ? VETO

What does the Security Council do to maintain peace? If the Security Council decides there is a threat to international peace it normally begins by calling for negotiations to resolve the problem The UN Secretary General or his representative works with the countries involved to settle the problem

If that does not work… Can impose diplomatic sanctions Can impose economic sanctions Can implement air and/or sea blockades

If that does not work… If there is still no progress the Security Council can authorize military action Recognized by their Blue Helmets

Achievements and Failures of the United Nations

The earliest and most serious failure of the United Nations involved its inability to control atomic energy especially the manufacture of weapons

“It is our hope that in the years to come we may look at this scroll and all that it signifies with pride. Today that pride must be tempered with a profound concern. If atomic bombs are to be added as new weapons to the arsenals of a warring world, or to the arsenals of nations preparing for war , then the time will come when mankind will curse the names of Los Alamos and Hiroshima.”… -Robert Oppenheimer 1945

The Weakness of the UN System in Enforcing Peace Veto power: the UN can only take serious action when all the “policemen” agree: “Decisions of the Security Council shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members including the concurring votes of the permanent members” Made the UN virtually powerless during the Cold War Hungary in 1956 Vietnam War The exception was Korea in 1950.

The composition of the Security Council does not reflect present day realities Britain and France are members of the Security Council only because they were victors in World War 2. Should they still be there? Similarly, Japan, the world’s second largest economy is not a Security Council member. Efforts to expand Security Council membership have failed because countries cannot decide on how it should be done. Probable candidates: Japan, India, Brazil and one African country (Nigeria?)

In more than 50 years, the UN Security Council has only authorized military action in the following cases Korea Somalia Bosnia Gulf War In all these cases different countries have undertaken military action with the permission of the UN. The UN itself has not gone to war

Typical UN operations are Peacekeeping not war fighting These operations usually come into effect once a war is over or to protect defenseless populations They monitor ceasefires, and help to maintain a buffer between the warring parties The peacekeepers are there at the request of the warring parties Their main role is to calm things and build confidence among the warring parties Soldiers from different countries are assigned to the UN, and are responsible to the United Nations, not their own countries

UN Peacekeeping Operations At present, there are 40,000 UN peacekeepers serving all over the world in 13 UN peacekeeping missions The first ever UN peacekeeping mission was established in the Middle East in 1948 is still continuing

UN Peacekeeping Operations The UN has no military force of its own, and is dependent on other countries to provide military forces The UN Charter requires countries to maintain a certain part of their forces for the use of the UN. This has never been done Instead of representing the world, the UN is often pushed into becoming an instrument of its most powerful members

Genocide in Rwanda: “The UN’s Greatest Failure” During 100 days beginning on April 7 1994, at least 800,000 people, mainly Tutsis, were slaughtered by Hutu militiamen in Rwanda At the time the United Nations had 2,000 peacekeepers in the region, led by Canadian General Romeo Dallaire. Dallaire warned UN headquarters that a massacre was being planned. His warnings were ignored When the massacre began, the UN Security council members decided to reduce the force to 270.

Genocide in Rwanda: “The UN’s Greatest Failure” France and Belgium sent in aircraft and troops, but only to evacuate their own nationals. The United States did not want to get involved, and was reluctant to describe the killings as genocide. Instead, they were described as “acts of genocide” This was actually the biggest genocide since the end of the Second World War Why did the world do nothing?

Genocide in Rwanda: “The UN’s Greatest Failure” After the killing of 18 US soldiers in Somalia, no western government wanted to get involved in another African conflict Rwanda is of little strategic importance to the west Can a similar genocide happen again? Probably. Likely places are in southern Sudan and the Congo. Will the world do anything about it?

Iraq: Another blow to the UN’s authority The United States and Britain violated the UN charter by going to war in Iraq in 2003 The UN and the rest of the world could do nothing But once Iraq was occupied, the US went back to the UN for help in reconstructing Iraq, conducting elections and so on.

Points to remember The United Nations can only do what its members, particularly its most powerful members allow it to do. When the UN is unable to act, it is usually because one or two of its powerful members do not want it to do so. The UN is not perfect, but it is the only institution we have where countries can solve problems together.

The U.N’s Strengths Picking up the pieces after a war ends and rebuilding societies Providing a forum for debate and discussion on issues facing the world (Climate Change) Acting as a coordinating force to provide aid in a time of disaster Creating a world-wide voice that can potentially defuse or minimize conflict Act as a force to help minimize further nuclear proliferation

Social, Economic, Environmental Issues Some of the Millennium development goals by 2015: Eradicate extreme poverty - reduce by half the number of people whose income is less that $1 a day Ensure that all children complete primary schooling Halve the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water and sanitation In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable drugs in developing countries

Other areas the UN is active in Health, refugees, human rights, environmental issues, sustainable development, promoting economic development-all these issues require international cooperation. The UN is the only forum for such cooperation