CHAPTER ONE CHAPTER ONE Studying Adult Development and Aging

Gerontology – The study of aging from maturity through old age AGEISM: a form of discrimination against older adults based on their age. Let’s review the results of our class Ageism Survey… Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging

The Life Span Perspective (LSP) LSP views life from conception to death LSP divides human development into two phases: 1. Early (infancy, childhood, and adolescence) 2. Later (young adulthood, middle age, and old age)

Paul Baltes (1987) identified FOUR key features: 1. Multidirectionality: development involves both growth and decline 2. Plasticity: one’s capabilities & potential are not fixed The Life Span Perspective

3. Historical context: development occurs within a certain set of historical circumstances Cohort: a group of people who share historical influences of a particular time 4. Multiple causation: development is influenced by biological, psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle forces. The Life Span Perspective

Forces of development –Biological forces: genetic and health-related factors –Psychological forces: internal perceptual, cognitive, emotional, and personality factors –Sociocultural forces: interpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethnic factors –Life-cycle forces: provide a context in which all the other forces may combine and interact Biopsychosocial framework

The Demographics of Aging Population Trends in the United States July 1, 2000

The Demographics of Aging Population Trends in the United States Projected to July 1, 2025

The Demographics of Aging Population Trends in the United States Projected to July 1, 2050

The Demographics of Aging Population Trends in the United States Projected to July 1, 2100

Normative age-graded influences: occur to most people at the same age Interrelations between the Forces: Developmental Influences

Normative history-graded influences: events that most people in a specific culture experience at the same time. Interrelations between the Forces: Developmental Influences

Non-normative influences: random/rare events that happen to an individual Interrelations between the Forces: Developmental Influences

Primary aging: normal and disease-free development during adulthood Secondary aging: developmental changes that are related to disease, lifestyle, and environmentally induced changes that are not inevitable Tertiary aging: rapid losses that occur shortly before death (cognition changes, etc.) There are at least 3 distinct aging processes:

Definitions of Age Chronological age: age in years since birth Perceived age: the age you think of yourself as Biological age: where one is in relation to possible life span Psychological age: Involves functioning levels Sociocultural age: refers to expected roles one has in relation to others

The nature-nurture issue: Do genetics or environment shape the individual? The stability-change issue: Do people remain the same over time? The continuity-discontinuity controversy: Is development smooth or does it occur in abrupt shifts? –Plasticity: capacity is not fixed and can be changed The universal versus context-specific development controversy: Is development the same for everyone all over the world? Core Issues in Development

Research Methods Research often starts with a hunch about a phenomenon. In order to conduct research, one must form a hypothesis, a testable statement that predicts an outcome. Do you think that computer games can increase ones cognitive abilities? –Hypothesis: Using Lumosity for at least 20 minutes per day will increase cognitive abilities

Research Methods: Systematic Observation Researchers carefully and systematically observe and record behavior without interfering with behavior Naturalistic observation Purpose is to observe how people or animals behave in their natural environments. Laboratory (Structured) observation Purpose is to observe how people or animals behave in a more controlled setting.

Research Methods: Case study A detailed description of a particular individual being studied or treated, which may be used to formulate broader research hypotheses

Research Methods: Self Reports/Surveys Questionnaires and interviews ask people about experiences, attitudes, or opinions Social desirability: the tendency of participants to respond in a way they think is socially acceptable or desirable rather than how they truly feel or think

Correlational Research Design A correlational study looks for a consistent relationship between two phenomena Correlation: A statistical measure of how strongly two variables are related to one another. Correlation coefficients can range from -1.0 to +1.0.

Direction of correlations Positive correlations An association between increases in one variable and increases in another, or decreases in one variable and decreases in the other. Negative correlations An association between increases in one variable and decreases in another.

Explaining correlations Correlations show patterns, not causes. Third variable effect or confounding variable: an alternative explanation for the cause of a behavior or event other than the expected cause Correlational analysis can not rule out confounding variables.

Experimental Research Design Allows psychologists to determine the cause of a behavior by controlling for confounding variables Experiment: a controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effect on another

Variables of interest Independent variables Variables the experimenter manipulates Dependent variables Variables the experimenter predicts will be affected by manipulations of the independent variable(s)

Representative sample A subgroup that accurately reflects the population about which the researcher wishes to draw conclusions

Research groups Experimental Group: exposed to the variable of interest (treatment) Control Group: a comparison condition in which subjects are treated like the experimental group except for the variable of interest Hypothesis : A testable statement that predicts an outcome. –Example: Using Lumosity for at least 20 minutes per day will increase cognitive abilities

Minimize risks to research participants. Describe the research to potential participants. Avoid deception. Results should be anonymous or confidential. Conducting Research Ethically

Reliability: Consistency in findings Validity: Does research measure the phenomenon of interest? Research Methods

Designs for Studying Development Cross-sectional designs: test or observe people of different ages at the same time Longitudinal designs: test or observe the same individuals repeatedly at different points in their lives Sequential designs: represent different combinations of cross-sectional or longitudinal studies Meta-analysis: Integrates findings from different studies –Powerful tool –Determines whether a finding generalizes across many studies that used different methods