Introduction to Educational Research Chapter 1 This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: • Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; • Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; • Any rental, lease, or lending of the program. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Discussion Topics Sources of knowledge Educational research as scientific inquiry Types of research designs Quantitative Qualitative Analytical Mixed methods Functions of research Research report formats Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Sources of Knowledge All of us frequently make decisions related to our professional lives Some decisions are very, very important, others quite trivial Some decisions are made in very formal, deliberate manners, others quite capriciously Where do we turn for such knowledge? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Sources of Knowledge What is the likely basis upon which each of the following questions could be answered? What is the best way to relax, today? What are we going to do for the holidays this year? What are the legal implications of the new attendance policy? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Sources of Knowledge Three legitimate sources for decisions of this nature Personal experience Tradition Authority Characteristics of these sources Idiosyncratic Informal Subjective in nature Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Sources of Knowledge What is the likely basis upon which each of the following questions could be answered? Will Gabrielle benefit by being held back in the second grade next year? How many students should be scheduled into Ms. North’s third grade class? Does block scheduling have an effect upon students’ achievement? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Sources of Knowledge Research is the most legitimate source for questions of this nature Research is a systematic process that is guided by accepted procedures to establish credibility Data collection Data analysis Interpretation The systematic, testable, and objective nature of research permits careful examination of the process and results Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Sources of Knowledge Describe some of the more important decisions you’ve made recently in your work with students, faculty, or clients. On what basis did you rely to make these decisions? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Research as Scientific Inquiry Scientific inquiry is the search for knowledge using recognized methods in data collection, analysis, and interpretation The purpose of scientific inquiry is to develop knowledge Describe phenomena Examine empirical relationships between or among phenomena Test whether such relationships are causal in nature Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Research as Scientific Inquiry Knowledge is typically presented in the form of theories A theory is a set of propositions that explain the relationships among phenomena A theory is a means of simplifying and understanding complex realities Examples of learning theories Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Educational Research Lack of a single, appropriate methodological approach to study education Two major approaches Quantitative Qualitative Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Educational Research Differentiating characteristics Goals Quantitative: tests theory, establishes facts, shows relationships, predicts, or statistically describes Qualitative: develops grounded theory, develops understanding, describes multiple realities, captures naturally occurring behavior Research design Quantitative: highly structured, formal, and specific Qualitative: unstructured, flexible, evolving Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Educational Research Differentiating characteristics Participants Quantitative: many participants representative of the groups from which they were chosen using probabilistic sampling techniques Qualitative: few participants chosen using non-probabilistic sampling techniques for specific characteristics of interest to the researchers Data, data collection, and data analysis Quantitative: numerical data collected at specific times from tests or surveys and analyzed statistically Qualitative: narrative data collected over a long period of time from observations and interviews and analyzed using interpretive techniques Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Educational Research Differentiating characteristics Researcher’s role Quantitative: detached, objective observers of events Qualitative: participant observers reporting participant’s perspectives understood only after developing long-term, close, trusting relationships with participants Context Quantitative: manipulated and controlled settings Qualitative: naturalistic settings Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Types of Research Designs Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Quantitative Designs Two major categories Experimental The investigation of causal effects through direct manipulation of an independent variable and control of extraneous variables Non-experimental The investigation of the current state of a variable or the relationships, other than causal, between variables Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Quantitative Designs An example of an experimental design Randomly assign students to one of two classrooms in which the same social studies unit is being taught. Teach the first class using the traditional lecture approach, the second class using co-operative learning groups. Examine the achievement differences between the two groups to see if the type of “approach” to instruction had an effect. This study is characterized by the investigation of cause (instructional approach) and effect (achievement), manipulation (choice of instructional approach), and control (same unit being taught, random assignment, etc.) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Quantitative Designs Differentiating the three types of experimental designs True experimental Random assignment of subjects to groups Quasi-experimental Non-random assignment of subjects to groups Single subject Non-random selection of a single subject Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Quantitative Designs Examples of non-experimental designs Approximately 10% of Louisiana’s public school students do not finish high school. The GPA of students participating in extra-curricular activities is higher than that of student who do not participate Student attitude is moderately related to achievement Several factors are related to the high dropout rate in Louisiana. These include the student’s age, academic record, repetition of grade(s), gender, and ethnicity. These studies are characterized by descriptions (dropout rate, GPA differences, opinions) or relationships (attitudes and achievement, factors related to dropping out) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Quantitative Designs Differentiating the four types of non-experimental designs Descriptive Makes careful descriptions of the current situation or status of a variable(s) of interest Comparative Compares two or more groups on some variable of interest Correlational Establishes a relationship (i.e., non-causal) between or among variables Ex-post-facto Explores possible causes and effects among variables that cannot be manipulated by the researcher. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Qualitative Designs Much less precision in the definitions of and distinctions between qualitative designs in comparison to quantitative designs Four major categories of designs Case study Phenomenology Ethnography Grounded theory Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Qualitative Designs Case Study An examination of a specific instance of a phenomena in its natural context viewed from the perspective of the participants This study explored the meaning of “inclusion” for three disabled students who had been placed in a regular education setting. This study examines in-depth a phenomena of interest to the researcher (i.e., the meaning of inclusion) in a natural context viewing it from the participant’s perspectives Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Qualitative Designs Phenomenology A description of the meaning of an experience The purpose of this study was to examine the meaning of being “left out” for an adolescent This study examines in-depth the experiences of being “left out” from the perspectives of the adolescent experiencing this phenomena Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Qualitative Designs Ethnography A description the beliefs and practices of a cultural or social group or system The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the conflicts that experienced second-grade teachers encountered as they switched from a traditional approach to teaching mathematics to a constructivist-sociological approach This study examines the beliefs and practices of second grade teachers experiencing a common phenomena related to their approach to teaching Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Qualitative Designs Grounded theory A description of a conceptual understanding of a particular phenomenon The purpose of this study was to understand the relationship of the bar to the teachers who frequented it on Friday evenings. We found that teachers used the bar to facilitate their movement from “professional” to “personal” self. This study examined a phenomena of interest to the researcher (i.e., teachers congregating at a particular bar on Friday evenings) and developed a conceptual understanding of it. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Analytical Designs Descriptions of historical, legal, or policy issues through an analysis of documents, oral histories, and relics Two basic approaches Concept analysis – the study of educational concepts (e.g., co-operative learning, leadership, etc.) to describe the different meanings and the uses of the concept Historical analysis – the systematic collection and criticism of documents that describe past events of relevance to education Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Analytical Designs An example of a concept analysis The purpose of this study is to examine the meanings and uses of the term standards-based curriculum. This study examined the varied meanings, interpretations, and uses of an important curricular concept. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Analytical Designs An example of an historical analysis The purpose of this study is to examine the changes in standardized testing over the last 40 years. This study addresses the historical developments characterizing the use of standardized tests over a 40 year period. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008 Mixed Method Designs The use of quantitative and qualitative designs and methods within a single study Allows the researcher to better match the approach to gathering and analyzing data to the research questions Relative emphasis given to any particular method varies widely Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Action Research Design Systematic investigation Emphasis on teachers, counselors, and administrators Brings together characteristics of systematic inquiry and practice Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Four Functions of Research Basic: research designed to test or refine theory Applied: research conducted in a field of common practice and concerned with the application and development of research based knowledge Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Four Functions of Research Action: research designed to solve a specific classroom or school problem, improve practice, or make a decision at a single local site Evaluation: research designed to assess the merit and worth or a specific practice in terms of the values operating at a site Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Educational Report Formats Title and author Abstract Introduction Quantitative: specific research questions Qualitative: general problem statement Review of the literature Quantitative: extensive Qualitative: brief Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Educational Report Formats Research problem statement or questions Quantitative: specific, narrow questions and hypotheses Qualitative: general, foreshadowed questions Method and design Quantitative: participants, instruments, and procedures Qualitative: participants and settings/sites Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Educational Report Formats Results Quantitative: statistical explanations Qualitative: narrative descriptions Discussion Conclusions References Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008